Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is a significant disadvantage of using naturally occurring materials as emulsifiers?
Which of the following surfactants is categorized as a cationic surfactant?
How is the total HLB of a formulation calculated when using multiple oils and emulsifiers?
Which feature is NOT desirable in preservatives for use in emulsions?
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For an o/w emulsion to be stable, what must be true about the required HLB value of the emulsifier?
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Which synthetic surfactant is an example of a nonionic surfactant?
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Which factor does NOT affect the efficiency of an antioxidant in a product?
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For a blend to achieve an HLB of 12 using sorbitan monoleate (HLB 4.3) and polyoxyethylene sorbitan monoleate (HLB 15), what is the percentage of polyoxyethylene sorbitan monoleate required?
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What is a primary characteristic of a stable emulsion?
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Which of the following substances is considered an example of a humectant?
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What does the term 'creaming' refer to in the context of emulsions?
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Which of the following statements regarding emulsifiers is correct?
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Which of the following preservatives is considered to have bactericidal activity?
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What is the maximum allowable concentration of dispersed phase to prevent phase inversion?
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How can the viscosity of an emulsion be effectively increased?
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Which feature contributes directly to the viscosity of the emulsion?
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What is a key consideration when selecting an emulsifying agent?
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Which of the following is NOT an approved emulsifier?
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Why should ionic emulsifying agents be avoided in oral formulations?
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What type of oils are often used as carriers for active agents in emulsions?
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What effect does increasing the volume concentration of the dispersed phase have on viscosity?
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Study Notes
Emulsions
- Emulsions are mixtures of immiscible liquids, one finely divided and distributed throughout the other.
- Emulsifying agents stabilize the system.
- Oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions: oil droplets dispersed in water.
- Water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions: water droplets dispersed in oil.
- Water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) emulsions: water droplets enclosed in oil droplets, which are then dispersed in water.
Emulsion Types
- Pharmaceutical emulsions mix an aqueous phase with oils and/or waxes.
- o/w: oil droplets dispersed in the aqueous phase.
- w/o: water dispersed in the oil phase.
- The water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) emulsion structure is characterized by the unique arrangement where small water droplets are encapsulated within larger oil droplets, and these oil droplets are suspended in a continuous aqueous phase, allowing for distinct properties and applications.
Tests for Identifying Emulsion Type
- Miscibility tests: emulsions mix well with liquids that are miscible with their continuous phase.
- Conductivity tests: aqueous continuous phases conduct electricity, while oily continuous phases do not.
- Staining tests: use water-soluble and oil-soluble dyes to identify the continuous phase.
Formulation of Emulsions
- .Liquid paraffin, derived from petroleum, is known for its emollient properties, which soothe, soften, and hydrate the skin. It creates a barrier that prevents water loss, maintaining moisture and enhancing skin appearance and texture. Commonly used in lotions, creams, and ointments, emollients improve skin elasticity and comfort. In pharmaceuticals, they are vital for formulating oral emulsions, enhancing palatability and stability while ensuring even distribution of active ingredients. This improves medication efficacy and patient compliance. Additionally, liquid paraffin serves as an occlusive agent in cosmetics, locking in moisture and providing skin protection, alongside other emollients like castor and cod liver oil.
- Oral emulsions are used to mask the unpleasant taste of oily products.
- o/w emulsions are for IV injections
- w/o emulsions are for injectable medication (IM).
- Some emulsions possess a semi-solid consistency, making them suitable for use in various topical applications such as creams, lotions, and liniments, providing moisturizing and therapeutic benefits to the skin.
Emulsion Consistency
- Ideally, emulsions are plastic/pseudoplastic (viscosity changes with shear rate) and thixotropic (viscosity changes with time).
- High shear rates are needed for ease of pouring and injecting.
- Externally applied emulsions can exhibit a range of consistencies, which affects their absorption, spreadability, and overall effectiveness on the skin.
Controlling Rheological Properties
- In emulsions, as the volume of the dispersed phase increases, the interactions among particles intensify, resulting in a greater resistance to flow, hence higher viscosity.
- Phase inversion may occur if dispersed phase concentration exceeds 60%
- Particle size reduction enhances viscosity by increasing surface area and particle interactions, which leads to greater flow resistance. Smaller particles create more cohesive and stable emulsions, essential for effective topical formulations requiring precise viscosity. Homogenization reduces particle size for uniformity and stability, improving texture and ultimately yielding better characteristics in food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Therefore, controlling homogenization is vital for achieving optimal rheological and sensory properties in final products.
- Continuous phase viscosity affects emulsion viscosity..
- The influence of dispersed phase viscosity on the overall behavior of emulsions remains somewhat ambiguous, complicating predictions of stability and texture.
Choice of Oil Phase
- In many emulsions, the oil phase serves as the primary active component, playing a crucial role in delivering flavor, nutrients, or medicinal properties, depending on the application in food or pharmaceuticals..
- Examples of oil phases used in medications: These oils each possess unique properties: liquid paraffin offers smoothness and lubrication, castor oil has thickening qualities, cod liver oil is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, and arachis oil is known for its high nutritional value and flavor enhancement.
- Oils may also serve as carriers for active agents.
- Oils like hard paraffin, soft paraffin and light liquid paraffin can control consistency, and form a A coherent film is a uniform layer formed by various substances, serving functions in coatings, membranes, and emulsions. It stabilizes the dispersed phase by creating a barrier that minimizes coalescence, enhancing the emulsion's texture and durability.. The formation of this type of film can be influenced by factors such as the viscosity of the phases involved, the surfactants used, and the method of emulsification itself over skin.
- Fixed oils (vegetable origin) include arachis oil, sesame oil, cotton seed oil, and maize oil.
Emulsifying Agents
- Emulsifying agents play an essential role in maintaining the stability of emulsions by preventing phase separation. They achieve this by reducing surface tension, which facilitates the even distribution of immiscible liquids, thus promoting a consistent mixture.uring use.
- They form adsorbed films around dispersed droplets.
- Selection depends on the emulsification ability, which is the capacity of an emulsifying agent to stabilize emulsions by mixing immiscible liquids like oil and water. This process is vital in industries such as food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals, where product stability and texture are essential. Emulsifiers reduce interfacial tension, enhancing blend stability, sensory properties, and shelf life. Therefore, factors like emulsifier concentration, ingredient types, and processing methods are crucial for optimal emulsification and product texture.
Choice of Emulsifying Agent
- Approved emulsifiers include natural and semi-synthetic types, which are chemically modified for enhanced stability. Examples are modified starches and protein derivatives. Emulsifiers are crucial in food for texture, cosmetics for stability, and pharmaceuticals for ingredient release, aiding in product optimization and consumer satisfaction.
Examples: polysaccharides, glycerol esters, cellulose ethers, sorbitan esters and polysorbates.
- Ionic emulsifiers are surfactants that carry a charge, either positive (cationic) or negative (anionic), which affects their interaction with other ingredients in a formulation. Their charged nature can enhance the stability of emulsions by reducing the surface tension at the oil-water interface. Ionic emulsifiers effectively form stable emulsions in the presence of electrolytes or at specific pH levels. They are unsuitable for oral use due to gastrointestinal irritation.
Examples of Emulsifying Agents
Synthetic and semi-synthetic surface active agents includes; anionic surfactants (e.g., amine soaps, alkali metal and ammonium soaps), cationic surfactants (e.g., cetrimide), nonionic surfactants (e.g., polyethylene glycols), and amphoteric surfactants (e.g., lecithin).
- Naturally occurring materials (e.g., polysaccharides, beeswax, wool fat).
Finely divided solids have small particle sizes, resulting in unique physical and chemical properties distinct from bulk solids. Their large surface area increases reactivity, enhancing applications in pharmaceuticals for better drug bioavailability, in food for textural improvements, and in cosmetics as exfoliants or colorants, enriching aesthetic and sensory experiences.
Formulation by the HLB Method
- The Hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) is a critical parameter used to determine the appropriate ratio of hydrophilic (water-attracting) and lipophilic (oil-attracting) properties in emulsifying agents, enabling the formulation of stable emulsions across various applications..
- HLB (Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance) values are crucial in formulating emulsions, as they provide insight into the suitability of specific emulsifiers based on their affinity for water or oil, thus guiding the effective blending of emulsifiers to achieve desired stability and texture in products.
Stability Testing of Emulsions
- Macroscopic examination refers to the analysis of objects or specimens that can be observed without the aid of a microscope.
- Globule size analysis measures changes in globule size over time (due to coalescence). Techniques include Coulter counter and laser diffraction sizing.
- Viscosity changes are assessed by using viscosimeters to measure emulsion viscosity. Other qualities like pH, colour, taste, odor, and active component assay should also be measured.
Other Formulation Additives
- Antioxidants (e.g., BHT, BHA) are added to help prevent product degradation. Selection is based on compatibility with other ingredients and oil/water partition coefficients.
- Humectants are substances that attract moisture from the environment and help retain it, thus playing a vital role in maintaining hydration in various formulations. (e.g., propylene glycol, glycerol, sorbitol) are added to the product to reduce water evaporation from the product surface.
- Preservatives (e.g., benzoic acid, chlorocresol, parahydroxybenzoic acid, phenylmercuric nitrate) are crucial for preventing microbial growth in the product (bacteria, yeasts, and molds).
Stability of Emulsions
- Emulsions are stable when dispersed droplets remain spherical and uniformly distributed. This condition is critical, as it prevents any clumping, known as coalescence, where droplets merge to form larger droplets, which can compromise the integrity of the emulsion. Additionally, stability entails avoiding the phenomenon of creaming, where the dispersed droplets rise to the surface, leading to separation and instability in the mixture.
Creaming Prevention
- Reduce droplet size: The use of efficient emulsifying agents is crucial in achieving smaller droplet sizes within emulsions, as they enhance stability and improve the overall texture and mouthfeel of the product..
- Incorporate thickening agents like gums or polymers. Viscocity
- Use emulsifying agents like methylcellulose to enhance viscosity, and mobility of dispersed droplets in o/w emulsions.
- Reduce the difference in density between the continuous and dispersed phases.
- Careful control of dispersed phase concentration: Avoid phase inversion.
Flocculation Prevention
- Aggregated dispersed particles form loose clusters, which are still considered separate droplets, but they adhere to each other.
- Flocculation can be overcome by carefully shaking the emulsion.
- High charge density on droplets enhances electrostatic repulsion, thereby minimizing the likelihood of flocculation, which maintains the emulsion's stability and overall quality..
Coalescence Prevention
- Prevention of coalescence is achieved through the formation of mechanically strong adsorbed emulsifier layers that encapsulate each globule. These layers act as barriers, hindering the merging of droplets, thereby maintaining the stability and integrity of the emulsion.
Manufacture of Emulsions
- Simple blending of oil and water phases and suitable emulgents is sufficient, blending with mortar and pestle, turbine mixers for intense shearing, homogenizers can be used to further reduce globule size.
- Disperse phase added to continuous phase with other ingredients dissolved first in a soluble phase (or added in solution when the mixing starts).
Other Considerations for Emulsion Manufacture
- Melt oily ingredients if solid to avoid premature solidification on cooling.
- Maintain stirring during cooling to prevent demulsification, and adding volatile ingredients like flavors and perfumes after cooling is complete.
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Description
This quiz covers the fundamental concepts of emulsions, including the types commonly used in pharmaceuticals. Learn about oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions, their properties, and tests for identifying their types. Test your knowledge on emulsifying agents and their roles in stabilizing these mixtures.
