Electromagnetic Waves Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of electromagnetic wave?

  • X-ray
  • Gamma ray
  • Microwave
  • Luminous light (correct)

All objects are luminous and produce their own light.

False (B)

What is the distance between one crest and the next crest called?

wavelength

Light emitted by a chemical reaction without a rise in temperature is known as ______.

<p>chemiluminescence</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the source of light with its explanation:

<p>Incandescence = Light caused by heating Fluorescence = Light emitted by exposure to radiation Bioluminescence = Light produced by living organisms Triboluminescence = Light emitted when something is broken</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the highest point of a wave?

<p>Crest (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Light can only travel through solid materials.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of light is produced when an electric current passes through a gas?

<p>electric discharge</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of display technology is more efficient, converting 95% of energy into light?

<p>Electroluminescence (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The umbra is the region where light is only partially blocked.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the principle of reflection that states the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection?

<p>Law of Reflection</p> Signup and view all the answers

A ______ mirror is curved inward and is used to focus light.

<p>concave</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of mirrors with their characteristics:

<p>Concave = Curves inward and converges light Convex = Curves outward and diverges light Plane Mirror = Reflects light parallel and forms virtual images Mirror Image = Upright, same size, and on the opposite side</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process occurs when light passes from one medium to another and bends?

<p>Refraction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

An image formed by a plane mirror is always real and inverted.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the speed of a wave calculated by?

<p>V = f x λ</p> Signup and view all the answers

The property of light that allows it to travel through a vacuum is that it requires no ______.

<p>medium</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is true about a virtual image formed by a concave or convex mirror?

<p>Always upright (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focal point in a concave mirror?

<p>The point where parallel light rays converge (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Convex mirrors always produce virtual images.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does a prism have on white light?

<p>It separates white light into the colors of the rainbow.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The _____ is the point where the principle axis intersects the mirror.

<p>vertex</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following color combinations with their resulting colors:

<p>Blue + Red = Magenta Blue + Green = Cyan Red + Green = Yellow Red + Green + Blue = White</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true about light rays in a concave mirror?

<p>Light rays through the focal point reflect parallel to the principal axis. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When light enters a less dense medium, it bends away from the normal.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of images do diverging mirrors produce?

<p>Smaller, upright, virtual images.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In additive color theory, combining red and green light results in _____ light.

<p>yellow</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the refractive index a measure of?

<p>How much light slows down in a medium (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of lenses are thickest in the middle?

<p>Convex lenses (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Total internal refraction only occurs when light travels from a less dense medium to a more dense medium.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the formula for Snell's Law?

<p>n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2</p> Signup and view all the answers

A rainbow is produced when light disperses inside thousands of __________.

<p>raindrops</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms to their definitions:

<p>Element = Cannot be broken down into simpler substances Compound = Made of 2 or more atoms combined together Homogeneous mixture = Same composition throughout Heterogeneous mixture = Composition differs and parts are visible</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the principal focus of a lens?

<p>The point where light comes to focus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A mirage is formed by light being reflected off water.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the critical angle refer to in optics?

<p>The angle of incidence where the angle of refraction is 90 degrees.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The distance from the optical center to the principal focus is known as the __________.

<p>focal length</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characteristics are true for images produced by convex lenses?

<p>Virtual, smaller, and upright (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct name for the compound NaCl?

<p>Sodium Chloride (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A molecule is formed only between two metals or metalloids.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the formula for water?

<p>H2O</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a chemical reaction, matter is never created or ______.

<p>destroyed</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following prefixes with their corresponding numerical values:

<p>mono = 1 tri = 3 hexa = 6 deca = 10</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which prefix is used for 4 in molecular compounds?

<p>tetra (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The subscripts in a chemical formula can be adjusted to balance an equation.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of chemical equations?

<p>Word equation and chemical equation</p> Signup and view all the answers

Diatomic molecules contain two atoms of the same ______.

<p>element</p> Signup and view all the answers

What indicates the valence of the first element in multivalent compounds?

<p>A roman numeral in brackets (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the ability of a substance to conduct heat or electricity called?

<p>Conductivity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A pure element consists of more than one type of atom.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the charge and location of a neutron?

<p>Neutral and located in the nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

The melting point is the temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a ______.

<p>liquid</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of ion with its charge:

<p>Cation = Positively charged Anion = Negatively charged Monatomic ion = One type of ion Polyatomic ion = Multiple types of ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to an element when its protons change?

<p>It becomes a new element. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ionic compounds are formed between two non-metals.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define a polyatomic ion.

<p>An ion consisting of multiple types of atoms that acts as a single unit.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The atomic mass of an atom is measured in ______ units.

<p>A.M.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which property of matter refers to the ability to dissolve in a liquid?

<p>Solubility (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the heart?

<p>To deliver blood to the whole body (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract during expiration.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What part of the digestive tract is responsible for the majority of digestion?

<p>Small Intestine</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ______ carry blood away from the heart.

<p>arteries</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of the circulatory system with their functions:

<p>Arteries = Carry blood away from the heart Veins = Carry blood back to the heart Capillaries = Exchange of materials between blood and tissues Plasma = Fluid component of blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves the breakdown of complex organic molecules into smaller parts?

<p>Digestion (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The small intestine is lined with villi that aid in absorption.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of valves in the heart?

<p>Prevent blood from flowing backwards</p> Signup and view all the answers

The process of waste removal from the body is known as ______.

<p>Egestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

During inspiration, what happens to the pressure within the lungs?

<p>It decreases (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reaction type when two substances combine to form a compound?

<p>Synthesis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hydrogen ions (H+) are produced by bases.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term is used to describe the reaction where an acid and a base form water and salt?

<p>Neutralization</p> Signup and view all the answers

A solution with a pH of 4 is considered __________.

<p>acidic</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their descriptions:

<p>Acids = Increase hydrogen ion concentration in solution Bases = Increase hydroxide ion concentration in solution pH Scale = Measures acidity and alkalinity Neutralization = Reaction between acid and base producing water and salt</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines a hydrocarbon?

<p>A compound made of only carbon and hydrogen. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Diatomic elements always appear in diatomic form in reactions.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the formula for a carbonate polyatomic ion?

<p>CO3^2-</p> Signup and view all the answers

The pH scale ranges from _____ to _____.

<p>0, 14</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the product of the combustion of a hydrocarbon?

<p>Water vapor and carbon dioxide (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Acids taste bitter and feel slippery.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What ion do acids release in solution?

<p>H+</p> Signup and view all the answers

A compound that has the formula H2SO4 is known as __________ Acid.

<p>sulfuric</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following indicators with their function:

<p>Litmus paper = Tests for acidity (red for acidic) Phenolphthalein = Changes color in the presence of a base Universal indicator = Measures across the entire pH scale Red cabbage juice = Turns purple in neutral solutions</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the respiratory system?

<p>To facilitate gas exchange (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The heart consists of four chambers that work together to pump deoxygenated blood to the body.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of alveoli in the lungs?

<p>Gas exchange</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ______ connects the mouth to the stomach.

<p>esophagus</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the digestive organs with their functions:

<p>Liver = Produces bile to break down fats Pancreas = Produces insulin to regulate blood sugar Gallbladder = Stores and concentrates bile Stomach = Mixes and digests food using enzymes and acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs?

<p>Left atrium (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The diaphragm is the only muscle involved in the breathing process.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of mucus in the digestive tract?

<p>To protect the lining of the digestive tube and facilitate the passage of material</p> Signup and view all the answers

The main purpose of the ______ is to absorb water from indigestible food.

<p>large intestine</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which disease is a lung disease that affects gas exchange?

<p>Bronchitis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process describes the movement of solute molecules from high concentration to low concentration?

<p>Diffusion (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Facilitated diffusion requires energy to occur.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between a hypertonic and hypotonic environment?

<p>In a hypertonic environment, there is a higher concentration of solutes outside the cell, causing water to move out. In a hypotonic environment, there is a lower concentration of solutes outside the cell, causing water to move into the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The _____ is the phase of the cell cycle where the cell prepares for division.

<p>G2 phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of transport with their descriptions:

<p>Diffusion = Movement from high to low concentration Facilitated Diffusion = Movement through a protein channel Active Transport = Movement against a concentration gradient Osmosis = Diffusion of water across a membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles?

<p>Anaphase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cytokinesis is considered part of mitosis.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines a stem cell?

<p>A stem cell is an unspecialized cell that can differentiate into specialized cells or remain unspecialized and divide.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The process where a cell membrane surrounds material to bring it into the cell is called _____ .

<p>endocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes an isotonic environment?

<p>Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In an isotonic environment, the cell neither shrinks nor swells.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the sodium-potassium pump?

<p>The sodium-potassium pump moves sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell against their concentration gradients, requiring energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

During _____, the cell's chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes.

<p>prophase</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the extracellular matrix in organisms?

<p>Provides structural support (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of stem cells can differentiate into any embryonic and extraembryonic cell types?

<p>Totipotent (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pluripotent stem cells can only differentiate into a limited range of cell types.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of connective tissue connects bone to bone?

<p>Ligaments</p> Signup and view all the answers

_______ tissues provide sensory sensation and communicate with the brain.

<p>Nervous</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of animal tissues with their functions:

<p>Epithelial Tissues = Protection and secretion Muscle Tissues = Movement and contraction Connective Tissues = Support and insulation Nervous Tissues = Transmission of impulses</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a primary function of xylem in plants?

<p>Movement of water and minerals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The epidermis is the inner layer of the skin and provides protection.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main types of vascular tissues in plants?

<p>Xylem and Phloem</p> Signup and view all the answers

_______ cells originate from the fusion of an egg and sperm.

<p>Totipotent</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which tissue type is responsible for protecting the body from pathogens?

<p>Epithelial Tissue (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Meristematic tissues in plants are responsible for growth and can specialize into any plant tissue.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which organ in the body is primarily involved in respiration?

<p>Lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

The type of muscle tissue found in the heart is called _______.

<p>Cardiac Muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match each type of plant tissue with its function:

<p>Epidermal Tissues = Protection and gas exchange Ground Tissues = Storage and photosynthesis Vascular Tissues = Transport of nutrients and water Meristematic Tissues = Growth and differentiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Light's Path

Light travels in a straight line and can be refracted (bent) when passing through a new material.

Luminous Object

The ability of an object to produce its own light by converting other forms of energy into light energy.

Wave

A disturbance that transfers energy but not matter.

Crest

The highest point of a wave.

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Trough

The lowest point of a wave.

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Wavelength

The distance between two successive crests or troughs of a wave.

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Amplitude

The height of a wave from its resting position to its crest or trough.

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Frequency

The rate at which a wave repeats itself, measured by the number of crests passing a point per second.

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Electroluminescence

The process of a material emitting light when an electric current is passed through it.

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OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode)

A type of display that uses organic molecules (carbon-based) to produce light when electricity is passed through them.

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Plasma Display

A type of display that uses tiny fluorescent lights to produce color. Each pixel is made up of three sub-pixels: red, green, and blue.

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Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

A type of display that uses liquid crystals to control the passage of light.

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Wavelength (λ)

The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs of a wave.

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Period (T)

The time it takes for one complete cycle of a wave to pass a given point.

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Frequency (f)

The number of complete cycles of a wave that pass a given point in one second.

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Wave Speed (V)

The speed at which a wave travels. It is calculated by the product of the wave's frequency and wavelength: V = f x λ

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Refraction

The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another.

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Dispersion

The separation of white light into its constituent colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet).

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Vertex (V)

The point where the principal axis intersects the mirror.

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Focal Point (F)

The point where parallel light rays converge after reflecting off a concave mirror, located halfway between the vertex and curvature.

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Incident Ray

The ray of light traveling towards the mirror.

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Reflected Ray

The ray of light reflected off the mirror.

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Virtual Ray

A ray of light drawn inside a mirror, represented by a dotted line.

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Concave (Converging) Mirror

A mirror that curves inwards, causing parallel light rays to converge at a single point.

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Convex (Diverging) Mirror

A mirror that curves outwards, causing parallel light rays to diverge.

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Index of Refraction (n)

The ability of a transparent medium to slow down the speed of light, measured by how much the speed of light decreases.

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Boiling Point

The temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid to a gas.

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Atom

The smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element.

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Compound

A substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio.

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Physical Change

A change in the state or form of a substance, but not its chemical composition.

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Chemical Change

A change in the chemical composition of a substance, resulting in the formation of new substances.

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Anion

A negatively charged ion, formed when an atom gains electrons.

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Cation

A positively charged ion, formed when an atom loses electrons.

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Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms.

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Ionic Compound

A compound formed by the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

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Polyatomic Ion

A group of atoms that act as a single unit with a specific charge.

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Critical Angle

The angle at which light must hit the boundary between two mediums for it to refract completely back into the first medium.

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Snell's Law

A formula that calculates the angle of refraction when light passes between two mediums. n1sin(θ1) = n2sin(θ2), where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the mediums, and θ1 and θ2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

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Convex Lens

A type of lens where light rays converge at a single point. The lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges.

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Concave Lens

A type of lens where light rays diverge after passing through it. It is thinner in the middle than at the edges.

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Principal Focus

The point on the principal axis of a lens where light rays parallel to the axis converge after passing through the lens.

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Focal Length

The distance between the principal focus and the optical center of a lens.

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Principal Axis

An imaginary line drawn through the center of a lens, perpendicular to both surfaces.

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Object Distance (do)

The distance between the object and the lens.

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Image Distance (di)

The distance between the image and the lens.

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Molecular Compound

A chemical compound formed by the sharing of electrons between two non-metals or metalloids.

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Valence

The number of electrons an atom gains, loses, or shares to achieve a stable outer shell.

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Chemical Equation

A chemical equation that uses chemical formulas instead of names to represent each substance.

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Coefficient

The amount of a substance in a chemical reaction, represented by a number placed in front of a chemical formula.

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Word Equation

An equation that represents a chemical reaction using names of reactants and products.

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Reactant

A substance that undergoes a chemical change in a reaction.

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Product

A substance that is formed as a result of a chemical change.

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Law of Conservation of Mass

A chemical reaction where the total mass of the products equals the total mass of the reactants.

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Balancing Chemical Equations

The process of adjusting coefficients in a chemical equation to ensure the same number of atoms of each element on both sides.

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Diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration driven by random motion.

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Facilitated Diffusion

Movement of molecules across a semipermeable membrane with the help of proteins.

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Osmosis

Diffusion of water molecules across a semipermeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration.

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Active Transport

Movement of molecules across a semipermeable membrane against the concentration gradient requiring energy.

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Endocytosis

Bringing bulk chemicals into a cell by pinching a portion of the cell membrane around the material.

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Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

The fluid surrounding all living cells.

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Hypertonic Environment

An environment with a high solute concentration and low water concentration.

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Isotonic Environment

An environment with an equal concentration of solute and water.

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Hypotonic Environment

An environment with a low solute concentration and high water concentration.

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Cell Reproduction

The process of one parent cell producing two genetically identical daughter cells.

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Interphase

The phase of the cell cycle where the cell grows, duplicates its DNA, and prepares for division.

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Mitosis

The phase of the cell cycle where the nucleus divides.

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Prophase

The first stage of mitosis where chromatin condenses into chromosomes.

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Metaphase

The second stage of mitosis where chromosomes line up at the center of the cell.

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Anaphase

The third stage of mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.

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Synthesis Reaction

A chemical reaction where two or more substances combine to form a single product.

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Decomposition Reaction

A chemical reaction where a single substance breaks down into two or more simpler substances.

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Single Displacement Reaction

A chemical reaction where one element replaces another in a compound.

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Double Displacement Reaction

A chemical reaction where two compounds react to form two new compounds by exchanging ions.

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Combustion Reaction

A chemical reaction where a hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen, releasing energy, producing carbon dioxide and water as products.

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Acid

Any substance that increases the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration when dissolved in water.

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pH Scale

A scale that measures the acidity or basicity of a solution. 0-6 is acidic, 7 is neutral, 8-14 is basic.

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Acid-Base Indicators

Substances that change color in the presence of acids or bases, indicating the pH.

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Hydrogen-Containing Acid

A type of acid that always starts with 'H' in its chemical formula.

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Carboxylic Acid

A type of acid that contains the carboxyl group (COOH) in the chemical formula.

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Binary or 'Hydro' Acid

Acids formed by combining hydrogen with a non-metal.

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Oxyacid

Acids formed by combining hydrogen with a polyatomic ion.

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Neutralization Reaction

Special type of double displacement reaction where an acid and a base react to form water and salt.

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Eukaryotic Cells

Cells that contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

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Prokaryotic Cells

Cells that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

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Inspiration

The process of breathing in air, which involves the contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, increasing lung volume and decreasing air pressure, allowing air to rush in.

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Expiration

The process of breathing out air, which involves the relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, decreasing lung volume and increasing air pressure, forcing air out.

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Heart

A muscular pump that circulates blood throughout the body, carrying oxygen and nutrients to cells and removing waste.

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Atrium

The upper chamber of the heart responsible for receiving blood from the veins and pumping it into the ventricles.

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Ventricle

The lower chamber of the heart responsible for pumping blood to distant tissues.

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Valves

Structures within the heart that prevent blood from flowing backward. They ensure one-way blood flow.

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Ingestion

The process of taking in food into the mouth.

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Digestion

The process of breaking down large food molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body.

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Absorption

The process of taking up digested nutrients into the cells of the digestive tract.

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Egestion

The process of removing waste products from the body.

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Totipotent Cells

Cells that can differentiate into any cell type, including embryonic and extraembryonic cells. They can form a complete viable organism.

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Pluripotent Cells

Cells descended from totipotent cells that can differentiate into nearly all cell types, but not extraembryonic cells.

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In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

A process of fertilization that occurs outside the body, in a laboratory setting.

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Fibroblasts

Unspecialized cells found in the skin that can divide and differentiate into other cell types.

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Stem Cells

Cells that can divide and differentiate into specialized cells, used in medical treatments to replace damaged tissue.

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Meristematic Cells

A type of stem cell found in plants, located in the growing tips of roots and stems, and in the cambium.

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Tissue

A group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function.

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Organ

A structure made up of different types of tissues that work together to perform a complex function.

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Organ System

A group of organs that work together to perform a major body function.

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Epithelial Tissue

Tissue that lines surfaces and protects the body from dehydration and friction. It's found in the skin and the lining of organs.

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Connective Tissue

Tissue that provides support, insulation, and holds other tissues together.

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Muscle Tissue

Tissue that allows for movement and is made up of long, thin fibers that can contract.

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Nervous Tissue

Tissue responsible for transmitting information throughout the body, using electrical signals.

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Skin

The largest organ in the body, protecting the body from the environment, regulating temperature, and excreting wastes.

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Lungs

The respiratory system that allows for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

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Pericardium

The protective layer surrounding the heart, acting as a shield.

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Heart Chambers

The heart's four chambers are: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle.

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Right Side of the Heart

Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the body through the vena cava, then flows to the right ventricle where it gets pumped to the lungs.

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Left Side of the Heart

Oxygenated blood returns to the heart from the lungs through the pulmonary vein, enters the left atrium, and is pumped by the left ventricle to the rest of the body.

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Alveoli

Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place. Oxygen from inhaled air diffuses into the blood, and carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses into the air to be exhaled.

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Diaphragm and Breathing

The diaphragm is a large muscle that plays a key role in breathing. It contracts (flattens) during inhalation, expanding the lungs, and relaxes (domes) during exhalation, reducing lung volume.

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Villi

Tiny finger-like projections on the inner lining of the intestines that increase the surface area for efficient absorption of nutrients.

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Stomach

The stomach is a muscular bag that churns and mixes food with digestive enzymes and acids, breaking it down into smaller particles.

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Small Intestine

The small intestine is where most digestion takes place. It has a large surface area thanks to villi and microvilli, allowing for efficient absorption of nutrients.

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Large Intestine (Colon)

The large intestine primarily absorbs water from indigestible food, forming feces that are eliminated through the anus.

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Study Notes

Light

  • Vacuum: Empty space
  • Solar Radiation: Light from the sun
  • Electromagnetic Wave: Energy traveling through space, passing through vacuum and some materials
  • Electromagnetic Spectrum: Arrangement of electromagnetic waves
    • Radio
    • Microwave
    • Infrared
    • Ultraviolet
    • X-ray
    • Gamma ray
  • Visible Light: Light the human eye sees (white light)
  • Visible Spectrum: Different colors the human eye sees (different colors have different energy)
  • Waves: Disturbances transferring energy without matter transfer
    • Crest: Highest point
    • Trough: Lowest point
    • Rest Position: No amplitude
    • Wavelength: Distance of one cycle (crest-to-crest or trough-to-trough)
    • Amplitude: Wave height from rest position to crest or trough
    • Frequency: Rate of wave repetition, crests per second
  • White Light Dispersion: Breaking white light into constituent colors
  • Light Travel: Always in a straight line
  • Light Refraction: Direction change when light passes through a new material
  • Light Sources
    • Luminous: Produce and emit light, converting energy
    • Non-Luminous: Don't produce light, reflect light from other sources
    • Bioluminescence: Light production by plants or animals
    • Incandescence: Light by heating (inefficient, 5% light, 95% heat)
    • Fluorescence: Light from electromagnetic radiation (more efficient)
    • Phosphorescence: Light storing and releasing energy over time
    • Chemiluminescence: Light through chemical reaction (no rise in temperature)
    • Triboluminescence: Light from objects breaking
    • Electric Discharge: Light from electric current through gas (e.g., lightning)
    • Electroluminescence: Light from electric current (more efficient than incandescent and fluorescent; 95% light, 5% heat)
    • OLED: Organic (carbon-based) molecules using current for light
    • Plasma Display: Tiny fluorescent lights (RGB)
    • LCD: White light behind liquid crystals, RGB filters produce color
  • Wavelength, Period, and Frequency
    • Wavelength (λ): Metre (m)
    • Period (T): Seconds (s)
    • Frequency (f): Hertz (Hz)
    • Speed (v): Metres/second (m/s)
    • Wave Equation: v = f x λ
  • Ray Model of Light
    • Properties: No medium needed, invisible (unless interacting), frequency & period unchanged, slows in denser mediums
    • Behaviors: Reflects (redirection without transmission), refracts (bends passing through different mediums), disperses (breaks into constituent colors)
    • Ray diagrams: Straight lines showing light travel direction
    • Ray: single light unit; Beam: multiple rays
    • Beam types: Parallel, diverging, converging
  • Light Interaction with Materials:
    • Absorb: Light stored by substance
    • Transmit: Light passes through
    • Reflect: Light bounces off
    • Transparent: Transmits light freely
    • Translucent: Transmits some light, not clear
    • Opaque: Absorbs & reflects light, no transmission
  • Shadows:
    • Umbra: Completely blocked light
    • Penumbra: Partially blocked light; depends on sizes of light source and object

Plane Mirrors

  • Law of Reflection: Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
  • Image Types:
    • Real: Projected on screen, inverted, same side of mirror, made from actual light rays
    • Virtual: Not projected on screen, upright, opposite side of mirror, formed by non-existent light rays
  • Lateral Inversion: Right side becomes left, left becomes right
  • Image Description: Size, attitude, location, type
  • Plane Mirror Diagrams: Draw rays from object to mirror, extend the same distance into mirror; draw image; draw rays from image to eye, connect rays from object and eye

Curved Mirrors

  • Curved Mirror: Part of sphere, reflective surface
  • Types: Concave (inward curve) & convex (outward curve)
  • Terminology:
    • Center of Curvature (C): Center of sphere
    • Principal Axis (PA): Line through C and mirror's center, intersecting at 90°
    • Vertex (V): Point where PA intersects mirror
    • Focal Point (F): Where reflected rays converge/diverge (midway between V and C)
    • Incident Ray: Incoming ray
    • Reflected Ray: Ray reflected by mirror
    • Virtual Ray: Ray drawn inside mirror (dotted)

Concave (Converging) Mirrors

  • Examples: Flashlights, telescopes, cosmetic mirrors, headlights
  • Ray Diagram Rules:
    • Parallel ray reflects through F
    • Ray through F reflects parallel to PA
    • Ray to V reflects at equal angle
    • Ray through C reflects back on itself
  • Clauses: Object outside C, at C, between C and F, at F, between F and V

Convex (Diverging) Mirrors

  • Examples: Sideview mirrors
  • Ray Diagram Rules: Same as concave
  • Image Characteristics: Smaller, upright, virtual, same side

Color Theory

  • White Light: Mixture of rainbow colors (visible spectrum)
  • Prism: Transparent object separating white light
  • Colors (wavelengths & frequencies): Violet (400nm, 7.5x10¹⁴Hz), blue, green, yellow, orange, red (700nm, 4.3x10¹⁴Hz).
  • Additive Color Theory:
    • Primary Colors: Red, blue, green
    • Secondary Colors: Magenta, cyan, yellow
    • Combining primaries creates secondary colors and white light
  • Complimentary Colors: Pair of colors adding up to white
  • Filter Colors: Blocks colors, passing only the intended color. Secondary filter passes related primaries.
  • Subtractive Color Theory: Objects absorb and reflect colors. Reflected colors determine perceived color.
    • Primary Subtractive Colors: Yellow, magenta, cyan
    • Secondary Subtractive Colors: Red, green, blue

Refraction and Snell's Law

  • Refraction: Light bending passing through mediums.
  • Denser Medium: Bending towards normal, slowing down
  • Index of Refraction (n): Light-slowing effect. Higher n, more slowdown.
    • n = c/v (c=speed of light in vacuum, v=speed in medium)
  • Dispersion: White light splitting into colors due to varying speeds
  • Rainbow: Light dispersing in raindrops
  • Total Internal Reflection: Light stays within a medium (n₂ < n₁; i > C)
  • Critical Angle (C): Angle of incidence where refraction angle is 90°
  • Snell's Law: n₁ sin θ₁ = n₂ sin θ₂

Magnification Equation

  • Terminology: do (object distance), di (image distance), ho (object height), hi (image height), M (magnification)
  • Sign Conventions: do (+), di (+real, -virtual), ho (+upright, -inverted), hi (+upright, -inverted), M (+upright, -inverted)
  • Equations: M = hi/ho = -di/do

Lenses

  • Lenses: Transparent curved materials
  • Types: Convex (converging) and concave (diverging)
  • Principal Focus (F): Point where light converges/diverges
  • Principal Axis: Line through optical center perpendicular to surfaces.
  • Optical Center: Point on PA where light passes without bending
  • Focal Length: Distance from optical center to principal focus.
  • Rules for Ray Diagrams: (Identical rules, for concave and convex lenses follow above principles, only in a different manner)

Chemistry

  • Matter: Anything with mass and volume
  • Pure Substances: One kind of matter (element or compound)
  • Elements: Cannot be broken down, unique atoms.
  • Compounds: Two or more elements chemically combined in fixed ratios.
  • Mixtures: Combinations of pure substances
    • Homogeneous: Same throughout (solutions)
    • Heterogeneous: Composition differs (suspensions, mechanical mixtures)
  • Physical Properties: Appearance/composition (boiling point, melting point, malleability, ductility, color, state, solubility, crystal formation, conductivity, transparency)
  • Chemical Properties: Ability to change into new substances (flammability, behavior in air, reaction with water/heating, combustion)

Classification of Matter

  • Pure element - One type of atom
  • Mixture of two elements - Two types of uncombined atoms
  • Pure compound- One type of compound
  • Mixture of two compounds - Two types of uncombined compounds
  • Mixture of a compound and element - Compound and element
  • Diatomic molecule - Pure substance of two of the same atom bonded together

Atoms and the Periodic Table

  • Atomic Theory: All matter is atoms. Each element is unique. Atoms are the smallest unit of an element.
  • Subatomic Particles:
    • Neutron: Neutral, nucleus
    • Proton: Positive, nucleus, large
    • Electron: Negative, orbiting
  • Types of Elements: Metals, nonmetals, metalloids
  • Atomic Number: Indicates # of protons
  • Atomic Mass: Mass of an atom (AMU)
  • Mass Number: Protons + neutrons
  • Isotopes: Same element, different number of neutrons (different atomic mass)
  • Bohr-Rutherford Diagrams: Nucleus with protons and neutrons, shells with electrons
  • Lewis Dot Diagrams: Symbol with dots representing valence electrons

Forming Ionic Compounds

  • Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outer shell
  • Ion Charge: Charge an element gains
  • Anion/Cation: Negative/positive ions
  • Ionic Compounds: Metal (cation) and non-metal (anion), electron transfer
  • Properties of Ionic Compounds: Hard, brittle solids, high melting points, electrolytes
  • Formulas: Metal first, cross-multiply ion charges; simplify.
  • Naming Binary Ionic Compounds: Metal first, non-metal ending in "ide"
  • Multivalent Ions: More than one possible charge (Roman numerals).

Polyatomic Ions

  • Monatomic Ions: One type
  • Polyatomic Ions: Multiple types of elements chemically bonded as a group, acting like a single unit, with a single charge
  • Properties of Polyatomic Ions: Act as a group, covalent bonds
  • Formulas: Metal first, cross-multiply; brackets and charges outside if 2 subscripts of that ion.
  • Naming: Metal first, plus polyatomic ion name.

Molecular Compounds

  • Molecular Compounds: Two non-metals or metalloids, covalent bonds (sharing electrons)
  • Octet Rule: 8 valence electrons (usually)
  • Prefixes: Indicate number of each element in the name (di, tri, tetra. etc).
  • Formulas: Element closer to left, no cross-multiplication, use prefixes for subscripts.
  • Diatomic Molecules: Two of the same elements (H₂, N₂, O₂, F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂) all STP except Br & I

Chemical Reactions

  • Chemical Equation: Word equation (names) or chemical equation (formulas) using "+" and "→" (or ⇔) symbols, including state symbols.
  • Reactants/Products: Starting/newly formed substances
  • Law of Conservation of Mass: Total mass of reactants = total mass of products
  • Balancing Chemical Equations: Use coefficients to equalize the number of each element on both sides. Never change subscripts
  • Reaction Types:
    • Synthesis (Combination): A + B → AB
    • Decomposition: AB → A + B
    • Single Displacement: A + BC → AC + B (or A+BC→ AB +C )
    • Double Displacement: AB + CD → AD + CB
    • Combustion: Hydrocarbon + oxygen → CO₂ + H₂O + energy

Acids and Bases

  • Acids: Increase H⁺ ion concentration in water
  • Bases: Increase OH⁻ ion concentration in water
  • pH Scale: Measures acidity/basicity (0-14), 7 is neutral.
  • Indicators: Substances displaying color change based on H⁺ concentration (e.g., litmus paper, phenolphthalein, universal indicator, red cabbage juice)
  • Acid Naming:
    • Binary (Hydro): Hydro- + non-metal root - ic + acid
    • Oxy: Use polyatomic name, -ate → -ic, -ite → -ous + acid
  • Base Naming: Metallic ion + hydroxide (or ammonium + hydroxide).
  • Neutralization Reactions: Acid + Base → Water + Salt

Biology

  • Cells:
    • Eukaryotic: Nucleus, membrane-bound organelles (animals, plants, fungi, protozoa)
    • Prokaryotic: No nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles (bacteria, cyanobacteria)
    • Cell Size: Related to surface area-to-volume ratio; divides to maintain efficiency.
    • Functions: Intake, movement, growth, response, reproduction, exchange, waste
  • Transport:
    • Passive: No energy
      • Diffusion: High to low concentration
      • Facilitated Diffusion: With protein channels
      • Osmosis: Water diffusion; hypertonic/isotonic/hypotonic environments
    • Active: Energy required
      • Against gradient: Using protein pumps
  • Endocytosis/Exocytosis: Bulk transport into/out of cell
  • Cell cycle: Interphase (G1, S, G2), Mitosis (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase), Cytokinesis
  • Chromosomes: Carry DNA; sister chromatids.

Compound Light Microscope

  • Microscopy: Used to visualize small structures (1mm = 1000um).

Specialized Plant and Animal Cells

  • Regeneration: Replacing or growing lost body parts (limited in humans).
  • Extracellular Matrix: Substance stimulating regeneration
  • Cell Specialization: Same DNA but different functions (lung, skin, brain cells; plant cells like xylem & phloem)
  • Stem Cells: Unspecialized cells differentiating into specialized cells (embryonic & adult)
    • Potency:
      • Totipotent/Pluripotent: Ability to differentiate into various cell types
  • Tissues: Groups of similar cells (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous).
  • Organs: Tissues forming to perform a specific function.
  • Organs Systems: Organs working together.

Animal organs

  • Skin: Protective outer layer (epidermis, dermis)
  • Lungs: Respiration (alveoli, capillaries)
  • Heart: Muscular pump supplying blood (four chambers, valves)
  • Circulatory System: Blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins) and blood.

Digestive System

  • Digestion: Breakdown of food
  • Absorption: Uptake of digested nutrients
  • Mouth: Mechanical and chemical breakdown
  • Esophagus: Movement of food to stomach
  • Stomach: Churning and chemical breakdown
  • Small Intestine: Most digestion and absorption
  • Large Intestine: Water absorption and waste removal
  • Accessory Organs: Pancreas, liver, gallbladder

Respiratory System

  • Purpose: To intake oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide
  • Path: Nose/Mouth → Pharynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Lungs → Bronchioles → Alveoli → Capillaries
  • Gas Exchange: Diffusion of O₂ and CO₂ through alveoli walls
  • Breathing: Inhalation and exhalation; diaphragm and rib muscles
  • Control of Breathing: Involuntary, controlled by brain.

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Test your knowledge on electromagnetic waves and light properties with this quiz. Covering concepts such as the nature of light production, wave characteristics, and types of mirrors, you'll enhance your understanding of these fundamental topics in physics.

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