Eastern Philosophy: An Overview

• Eastern Philosophy includes Indian philosophy, Hindu/Vedic philosophy, Chinese philosophies, Buddhist philosophies, and Jain and Charvaka philosophies
• Philosophy, दर्शनशास्त्र, can be defined as Darshana, which means vision or to view in Sanskrit, and Shastra, which means discipline

Meaning of Darshana

• Darshana indicates looking at life and realizing the truth
• The definition of Darshana translates to: "It is one through which reality is seen"
• It is a discipline that deals with the vision of Ultimate Reality, also known as परम सत्य
• Darshana provides guidelines to realize the ultimate reality

Sources of Focus

• Mainly the Vedas and Upanishads are used
• The Vedas may or may not be accepted as an authority

Eastern Philosophy

• Eastern philosophy, specifically Indian philosophy, can be split into theistic and atheistic philosophies
• Six Vedic philosophies, known as Sad-darshana, are theistic
• Charvaka, Buddhist and Jain philosophies are atheistic

Indian Philosophy

• Encompasses the philosophical speculations of all Indian thinkers with diverse outlooks in the search for truth
• Utilizes a common method of philosophical discussion:
  • Purvapaksa involves stating the views of the opponent
  • Khandana involves refuting the opponent's view
  • Utterpaksa involves stating and proving the philosopher's own view or siddhanta

Classification

• Indian philosophies are classified into Theistic, accepting the authority of the Vedas, and Atheistic, not accepting the authority of the Vedas
• Can also be classified as Orthodox, accepting the existence of god which is Ishwarvadi, and Heterodox, not accepting the existence of god which is anishwarvadi
• These classifications may vary among authors

Theistic Indian Philosophy

• Also known as Astika Darshana, refers to the 'Sad-darshanas' or the six systems of Indian philosophy
• The six systems are:
  • Nyaya
  • Vaisesika
  • Samkhya (Heterodox)
  • Yoga
  • Purva-Mimamsa Mimamsa (Heterodox)
  • Uttara-Mimamsa
• Generally deals with:
  • Existence and nature of Brahman
  • Nature of the Jeeva, individual soul
  • Creation of the Jagath or the world
  • Moksha, liberation

Vedic Ways of Knowing

• Six pramanas are used to learn as portrayed in the image: - Anumana (Inference) - Pratyaksha (Perception) - Sabda (Verbal Testimony) - Anupalabohi (Non-Apprehension) - Arthapatti (Postulation) - Upamana (Comparision)

Nyaya Darshana

• Propounded by Gautama, literally meaning 'Rules', 'Method' or 'Judgment'
• Known for its significant contributions to Indian philosophy, with the systematic development of logic and epistemology
• Accepts four of the Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge
  • Pratyakşa, perception
  • Anumāņa, inference
  • Upamāņa, comparison and analogy
  • śabda, word, testimony of past or present reliable experts

Vaisesika Darshana

• Founded by Kaņāda Kashyapa around the 6th to 2nd century BCE
• Key ideas are:
  • Objects of the universe are composed of five elements: earth, water, air, fire, and ether
  • Objects in the physical universe are reducible to Paramaņu, atoms
  • Experiences derive from the interplay of substance consisting of spatial arrangements, quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inheritance
• Perception and Inference are the only proper means of knowledge

Samkhya Darshana

• Founded by Kapila muni, son of Maharishi Kardama
• Works on the concept of prakriti, matter, and purusha, consciousness, indicating a dualist nature
• Does not directly assert the existence of god and is considered heterodox
• Considers Vedas as reliable sources of knowledge
• Accepts three Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge: Pratyaksa, Anumaņa, Sabda

Yoga Darshana

• Based on the epistemological, metaphysical, and methodological ideas of an age-long meditative tradition codified in the work of Patanjali, known as Yoga Sutras
• The universe is the result of the interaction of nature, prakriti, and the self, purusha
• Goal in life is union, yoga, with the Ultimate Reality, creating a state of enlightenment called samadhi
• The objective of yoga is to still disturbances of the mind so the self can be liberated and mental obstacles can be prevented
• Key sources of knowledge are Pratyaksa, Anumaņa, Sabda

Purva Mimamsa

• Propounded by Rishi Jaimini from 300–200 BCE
• 'Mimamsa' means a 'revered thought' and originates from 'Man', referring to 'thinking' or 'investigating'
• Suggests probing and acquiring knowledge or a critical review and investigation of the Vedas
• Each of the Vedas is composed of four parts: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads

Karma-Kanda Portion

• The first two parts are generally focused on the rituals
• The latter two parts form the Jnana-Kanda, concerned with knowledge
• Based on the Purva, earlier, parts of the Vedas
• Does not directly assert the existence of god and embodies Heterodox philosophy
• Utilizes three pramanas, namely perception, inference, and testimony

Uttara Mimamsa

• Also known as Vedanta
• 'Vedanta' usually refers to the Upanishads and translates to 'Veda' + 'Anta', meaning the ending portion of the Vedas
• A very significant school of Indian philosophies, as well as the most influential orthodox philosophical system
• Covers not only the Upanishads but all the commentaries and interpretations associated with the Upanishads
• The three principal means of knowledge are perception, inference, and word

Other Indian Philosophies

• These include:
  • Buddishism
  • Jainisam
  • Charvak

Charvaka Philosophy

• Charvaka, also called Lokayata, means "Worldly Ones" in Sanskrit, which refers to the school of materialists
• This school rejects the notion of:
  • an afterworld
  • karma
  • moksha
  • the authority of the Vedas
  • the immortality of the self
• It was founded by Brihaspati and is a heterodox, atheist philosophy
• The Charvaka only recognizes direct perception, anubhava, as valid and recognized means of knowledge
• Critics of the school depict its followers as hedonists advocating a policy of total opportunism