Earth's Radiation Balance

Module One: Earth’s Radiation Balance

• Solar radiation emitted by the Sun supplies energy to Earth and is affected by multiple factors.

The Sun’s Energy Output

• Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation is the energy emitted by the sun.
• The amount of EMR emitted is determined by the Sun’s surface temperature and radius (size).
• Hotter objects emit more energy.
• Larger objects emit more total energy.
• Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law can determine the total power emitted by the Sun.

How Energy Spreads Through Space

• Energy from the Sun spreads spherically outwards, becoming more diluted the farther it travels.

The Distance Between the Earth and the Sun

• The average distance between Earth and the Sun is 150 million km.
• Solar Constant is the energy that arrives at the top of the Earth’s atmosphere.

How Earth’s Shape and Rotation Affect Solar Energy Distribution

• Only the side facing the Sun gets direct radiation.
• The planet is rotating, meaning no single location is always exposed to the Sun.
• On average, each square meter of Earth’s upper atmosphere receives 342 W/m2, derived from the solar constant divided by four.

Wien’s Law

• Hotter objects emit shorter wavelengths of radiation.
• Cooler objects emit longer wavelengths of radiation.

Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law

• Hotter objects emit more total energy per unit area.
• Energy emitted increases exponentially with temperature.
• Energy per square meter (from Stefan-Boltzmann Law) and the total surface area of the sun determines the total energy emitted by the Sun per second.
• Only a fraction of the sun's total energy reaches Earth.

Energy Pathway to Earth

• The amount of energy that reaches Earth (based on distance from the sun, and cross-sectional area) is only a fraction of the sun's total output.
• Incoming solar energy per square meter reaching Earth's upper atmosphere is 1370 W/m².

Total Energy Captured by Earth

• Each square meter received solar constant.
• To find the total energy intercepted by earth we do Solar Constant x Cross-Sectional Area.
• Total surface area of a sphere is x4 of the cross-sectional area so to get our distributed energy in watts per square meter, divide our total energy captured by 4.

Impacts of Solar Constant

• Larger area, smaller solar constant, as total energy flux spreads over a larger area.

Lecture Two

• The average Earth receives 342 W/m2 of solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere.
• Not all of this energy warms the planet.

Interactions with Solar Energy

• Absorbed: Warms the planet.
• Reflected: Energy bounces back into space (depending on albedo).
• Transmitted: Energy passes through without contributing to heating.

Albedo

• Fraction of incoming solar radiation reflected back into space.
• Earth’s average albedo is 30%.
• 23% is reflected by clouds, dust, and aerosols.
• 7% is reflected by Earth’s surface (ice, snow, oceans, forests).
• High albedo: Ice, clouds.
• Low albedo: oceans, forests, dark surfaces.
• 70% of incoming solar energy is absorbed.
• Total absorbed energy = (1-albedo)*Incoming Solar Energy.
• Absorbed energy warms the planet.

Earth’s Radiation Balance

• Without losing energy, Earth would only get hotter; it must emit the same energy it absorbs to maintain a stable temperature.
• Outgoing Longwave Radiation is the energy Earth emits back into space.
• Earth must radiate 240 W/m2 back into space to balance absorbed energy, which calculates to -18°C.
• The Greenhouse Effect makes Earth warmer than this calculated temperature.

Lecture Three

• Incoming Solar Radiation can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted.
• Some Outgoing radiation escapes, while greenhouse gasses (GHG) trap some and re-emit it, trapping heat.
• The Earth emits longwave radiation that greenhouse gasses interact with from the Earth.
• The Earth’s Effective Radiating Temperature is -18°C, but the actual surface temperature is 15°C.
• Greenhouse gasses absorb and re-emit infrared radiation, preventing some energy from escaping.
• This trapped energy warms the surface.
• Greenhouse gasses include Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapor, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, and Ozone.
• Greenhouse Gasses are gasses in the atmosphere that absorbs or emits radiation within the wavelength band of thermal infrared energy.
• They typically have three or more atoms that can bend and stretch asymmetrically, allowing them to absorb and emit infrared radiation.
• Major atmospheric gasses like N2 and O2 are not GHG because they don’t absorb infrared radiation.

Lecture Four

• Earth would be too cold for liquid water and life without the greenhouse effect.

Scenario 1: No Greenhouse Gases

• All incoming solar radiation reaches Earth’s surface.
• Earth absorbs and emits it as infrared radiation.
• All infrared radiation escapes directly into space.
• Earth’s effective temperature remains -18°C, too cold to sustain life.

Scenario 2: With Greenhouse Gases

• Earth absorbs 240 W/m2 of solar radiation and emits 240 W/m2 of infrared radiation from its surface.
• Greenhouse gasses absorb some of this IR radiation.
• The atmosphere heats up and emits IR radiation in all directions, with 50% going back to Earth and 50% escaping to space.
• Earth’s surface receives both 240 of solar radiation and 240 of IR radiation.
• The total energy reaching the surface becomes 480 W/m2.
• Earth’s surface warms until it emits 480 W/m2.
• Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law implies the surface reaches a new, warmer equilibrium temperature.

Lecture Five

• A basic model shows Earth absorbs 240 W/m2 of solar energy and emits 240 W/m2 of infrared radiation (IR), raising Earth’s temperature by 30°C.
• In reality: The atmosphere absorbs some solar energy before it reaches the surface. Not all IR is trapped—some escapes directly to space. Other heat transfer processes (latent and sensible heat) move energy away from the surface.
• Accurate modeling requires considering how much energy moves through the system.

Incoming Solar Radiation

• The atmosphere absorbs 23% of incoming solar radiation before it reaches Earth’s surface.
• Clouds and the atmosphere reflect 23%, and Earth’s surface reflects 7%.
• 47% of sunlight makes it to the ground and is absorbed by the ocean, land, and vegetation.

Energy Transfer Processes

• After energy is absorbed by the surface, it needs to leave the system.
• Earth emits infrared radiation (IR), but the greenhouse gasses trap most of it.
• Some IR escapes directly to space.
• Other heat transfer processes are latent heat and sensible heat.
• Previous calculations gave Earth’s mean temperature as 30°C, but this is inaccurate; it is 15°C.
• This is because some incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere before reaching the surface as well as not all emitted IR is absorbed by greenhouse gasses.

Module Two: Atmosphere

• Due to the curvature of the Earth, sunlight doesn't hit all parts of the planet equally, leading to unequal distribution of incoming and outgoing energy.

The Angle of Sunlight

• Sunlight hits the equator directly (perpendicular), concentrating energy in a small area and increasing temperature.
• Sunlight hits the poles at an oblique angle, spreading the same energy over a larger area and decreasing temperature.

The Tilt of Earth

• Earth is tilted 23.5°, so different parts get direct sunlight in different seasons, explaining seasonal changes in energy distribution.
• In June, the Northern Hemisphere tilts towards the Sun (summer).
• In December, the Northern Hemisphere tilts away from the Sun (winter).

Incoming Energy vs. Outgoing Energy

• The equator absorbs more energy than it releases (energy surplus).
• The poles release more energy than they absorb (energy deficit).
• If energy was not moved, the tropics would get hotter, and the poles would freeze.
• The atmosphere moves warm air from the Equator to the Poles and cold air from the poles to the equator, keeping Earth’s temperature relatively stable.

Lecture Two

• Air temperature and moisture content influence the rising and sinking of air in the atmosphere.

Air Temperature’s Effects

• Warm air molecules spread out, reducing air density, causing it to rise.
• Cool air molecules pack closer together, increasing air density, causing it to sink.

Moisture’s Effects

• Water vapor is lighter than N2 and O2; moist air is less dense and rises.
• Dry air is denser and sinks.

The Combined Effect

• Warm & Wet = Low Density = Rises (at the equator).
• Cold & Dry = High Density = Sinks (at the poles).
• Rising warm, wet air at the Equator and sinking cold, dry air at the Poles help create large circulation patterns that drive global weather and climate.

Continuity

• Continuity in the atmosphere states that (1) rising air must be replaced and (2) sinking air must push air outwards. This creates a constant connection.

Process of Continuity

• Solar energy heats the equator surface, causing warm, moist air to rise (vertical motion), creating a gap at the surface.
• Air flows from higher latitudes towards the Equator (horizontal motion) to replace rising equatorial air.
• Rising air spreads out horizontally at higher altitudes and some flows towards the poles.
• Upper-level air cools as it moves polewards and sinks back to the surface (vertical motion) at the poles.
• Sinking air spreads out at the surface and flows back towards the equator (surface horizontal motion).
• Global Circulation Cells splits into 3 circulation cells in each hemisphere. Hadley Cell (Tropics): Warm air rises at the Equator, moves polewards aloft, sinks around 30°.
• Ferrell Cell (Mid-latitudes): Air moves opposite to the Hadley Cell.
• Polar Cells (Poles): Cold air sinks at the poles and flows back towards 60°.

Lecture Three

• Coriolis Effect is the apparent deflection of moving objects (like air or water) caused by the rotation of the Earth that objects already moving.
• According to Coriolis, in the Northern Hemisphere, objects deflect to the right. In the Southern Hemisphere, objects deflect to the left.
• Earth’s rotation produces the Coriolis Effect because points near the equator must move faster than points near the poles.
• Mismatched speeds cause the moving air to appear to curve.
• From our perspective, moving objects appear to bend (to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere).
• Atmospheric circulation is associated with bands of high and low air pressure at the surface that causes Rising air to have low pressure at the surface and Sinking air to have high pressure at the surface.

Lecture Four

• Atmospheric Circulation helps circulate air and heat throughout Earth.
• Warm air rises at the equator and cold air sinks at the poles.

Three Circulation cells

• Hadley Cells (Tropics, 0-30°): Warm air rises at the Equator, moves up high towards 30° and sinks back down.
• Ferrel Cell (Midlatitudes, 30-60°): Air at 30° moves towards the poles at the surface, rises at 60°.
• Polar Cell (Poles, 60-90°): Cold air sinks at the poles and moves towards 60° where it rises.

Rising Air

• Rising air cools and expands, causing condensation and cloud formation.
• Rising Air happens at the Equator (ITCZ), 60°N and 60°S (Polar Front).
• Clouds and precipitation are common at those above locations.

Sinking Air

• Sinking air warms up and dries out, preventing cloud formation.
• Sinking Air happens at 30°N and 30°S (Subtropical Highs), 90°N and 90°S (Poles, cold dry air sinking).
• These areas are have clear skies and dry conditions with deserts and very little precipitation.

Impact of Continents

• Disrupt atmospheric circulation as land and oceans heat and cool at different rates.
• Land heats up and cools down faster (low heat capacity).
• Water heats and cools slowly (high heat capacity + mixing).
• During Winter (January) Land is cold = high pressure over continents (cold, sinking air) whereas Oceans are warmer = low pressure over oceans (warm, rising air). This causes patchy rising and sinking air in the mid-latitudes.
• Summer (July) Land is warm = low pressure over continents (rising air) whereas Oceans are cooler = high pressure over oceans (sinking air), reversing winter patterns.
• The Southern Hemisphere (mostly ocean) has a much less patchy—smoother global circulation.
• High and low pressures bands remain closer to the ideal continuous global atmospheric circulation model.
• Monsoons are a major consequence of this land-ocean contrast
• Land heats up faster in summer = warm rising air over land pulls moist air from the ocean—this results in a summer monsoon with heavy rain.
• Land cools faster in the winder = cold sinking air over land, pushing dry air outwards—results in a dry winter monsoon.

Lecture Five

• Continents affect Atmospheric Circulation because land and ocean heat and cool at different rates.
• As a result, the land and sea temperature difference create different air pressures and drives patterns of rising and sinking air over continents and oceans.
• Without continents, rising and sinking air would form continuous bands around the planet whereas with continents, these bands become patchy—rising and sinking air happens in smaller irregular areas.
• Clouds form where air is rising whereas deserts form where air is sinking.

ITCZ

• A band of rising air near the equator with clouds and rain, as well as where trade winds form.
• Since the land gets warmer, air rises more strongly over land that over water so the ITCZ follows the warmest area.
• In NH Summer (July), the land is very hot, so the ITCZ moves further north whereas in the NH Winter (January), the land is colder, so the ITCZ shifts back south.
• Countries like India and West Africa get strong monsoon rains when the ITCZ shifts over them in the summer.

Module Three: Hydrosphere

Lecture One

• Ekman Transport is the net movement of water caused by wind blowing over the ocean that moves water to to the right/left depending on the hemisphere.
• Northern Hemisphere transport go 90 degrees to the right of the wind direction.
• Southern Hemisphere transport go 90 degrees to the left of the wind direction.
• Ekman Transport happens due to Friction pulling surface water and the Coriolis Effect spinning water and dragging it at an angle.
• The Ekman Spiral is what occurs below the surface where the top layer of water moves at an angle from the wind and the layer below moves slightly more angled.

Lecture Two

• Due to Ekman Transport, water moves towards/away from each other across the planet. When the water moves towards/away from each other across the planet, they could generate Convergence and Divergence.
• Convergence is what occurs when Water is pushed together and piles up, forming a “hill.” Downwelling must occur to make the hill flat.
• Divergence occurs when Water is pulled apart (spread apart) forming a “valley.” Upwelling must occur to make the valley flat.
• By Identifying Wind Direction, Applying Ekman Transport, & Identify whether Water Collects or Spreads we can identify the process of determining Divergence/Convergence.
• Pressure Gradient Force (HPGF) is a force that pushes water from high pressure areas to low pressure areas as if going down a hill.
• Coriolis Force comes from Earth spinning and deflect the water sideways.
• Coriolis deflects ocean currents to the right of the pressure gradient in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in Southern Hemisphere.
• Geostrophic Balance is when (1) the HPGH pulls water downhill (2) the Coriolis Force pulls water sideways (3) These two forces balance, so the water doesn’t go straight down but instead flows around the hill or valley in a circular path. This balance is called Geostrophic Flow.
• The process of understanding Geostrophic Flow starts with wind direction, then Ekman Transport, the HPGF and finally The Coriolis Force.

Lecture Three

• Continents change how movement in the Hydrosphere occurs: Ocean Gyres—A gyre is a large, circular loop of ocean current caused by continents blocking the water’s path through circular.
• Gyres follow same principles relating to hills/valley → HPGF → Coriolis Effect → Direction of Geostrophic Flow (90 degrees left/right of the Coriolis).
• Western Intensification causes these conditions: Fast, narrow, deep current on the western side of gyres and Slow, wise, shallow current on the eastern side of gyres.

Lecture Four

• Wind-Driven Circulation refers to is primarily due to winds whereas Density-Driven Circulation (Thermohaline Circulation) refers to the deep ocean movement caused by differences in water density dependent on temperature and salinity.
• Density: Lower temperatures = higher density. Higher salinity = higher density. Higher pressure = higher density (but effect is small compared to temperature and salinity).
• The Ocean is separated into 3 categories: Mixed Layer (Top Layer): the surface water. The density stays pretty much the same and is less dense than the water below.
• Pycnocline (Middle Layer): a “transition zone” between the top and bottom layers where density changes increases fast with depth.
• Deep Ocean (Bottom Layer): Below the pycnocline, the water is denser and more stable.
• Thermohaline Circulation occurs because stable layering means that most the mixing happens near the surface and makes it hard for surface water to mix with deep water so in places where the surface water gets very cold and salty, it gets very dense and can sink past the pycnocline into the deep ocean.

Thermohaline Circulation (Density Driven) Steps:

• Formation of Deep Water (Sinking Process): surface water becomes very dense and sinks due to Cooling of the water and Increase in salinity due to ice formation as well typically in cold parts of the ocean.
• Global Movement of Deep Water (Conveyor Belt): Once the water sinks, it spreads across the deep ocean basins from the North Atlantic to the Southern Ocean/Indian/Pacific oceans,. Eventually, it rises back up via upwelling.
• Upwelling (Rising Process): Deep, nutrient rich water rises to the surface, helping marine life thrive.

Consequences of Thermohaline Circulation

• Heat Transport: Moves heat from the equator to the poles, regulating global climate.
• Carbon Sequestration: The deep ocean stores carbon dioxide, reducing atmospheric CO2 and slowing climate change
• Nutrient Cycling: Bring nutrient-rich deep water to the surface, supporting marine ecosystems
• Climate Stability: Slowing circulation due to global warming could lead to colder winters and stronger tropical storms and thus it is imperative to keeping the system stable

Lecture Five

• Deep Water Formation occurs when surface water becomes very dense–either by getting very cold or very salty and is unstable, causing the water to sink North Atlantic Deep-Water Formation (NADW) Process is a deep-water formation in the North Atlantic Ocean where: As warm water from the tropics move northwards, loses heat to the cold atmosphere, further cooling water, which then rejected fresh water and increases in salinity (gets dense) sinks to form the NADW which starts to flow southward as a deep current.
• Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) Formation Process is a deep-water formation that occurs at the Weddell Sea (near Antarctica) where: Cold katabatic winds blow sea ice away from the coast, creating a polynya, water loses heat to the atmosphere and as ice forms, rejects salt to the atmosphere. As a result of the cold and salty water, it gets very dense and sinks, forming Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) which flows northward at the bottom of the sea.
• Global Conveyor Belt (Thermohaline Circulation) is a global system of deep ocean currents driven by differences in density taking around 1000 years.
• Oceans regulate heat around the planet where warm surface water moves northward from the tropics, carrying heat, then cools, sinks and releasing heat into the atmosphere.

Module Four: Lithosphere

Lecture One

• Continents have impacts on the climate by: Land vs Ocean Heating, Albedo (how much sunlight surface reflects), Continental Configuration & ITCZ Shift and Shaping Ocean Currents.
• Tectonic plates control how much CO2 is in the air, how high the seas are, and even whether Earth escapes an extreme ice age.
• Seafloor Spreading: Faster spreading leads to higher sea levels and impacts weather patterns.
• Volcanic Processes: Volcanoes release CO2 (warming) and Ash & sulfur particles (cooling).
• Mountain Building & Carbon Removal: Weathering rocks removes CO2.
• Heat from Earth’s Interior may have helped melt ice.
• Earth’s interior layers influence tectonic plate movement.

Earth Layers by Composition:

(1) Crust the thin outer layer we live on made of solid rock, (2) Mantle the thickest layer below the crust. Made of denser, iron rich rock and (3) Core which is mostly iron and nickel and makes-up the center of the Earth.

Earth Layers by Mechanical Behaviour:

• Lithosphere the rigid outer shell that includes the crust and the very top part of the mantle (earthquakes).
• Asthenosphere the soft, squishy layer just below the lithosphere that helps plates move on top.

Tectonic Processes

• Happen because of plate tectonics—lithosphere movement on the asthenosphere. As you go deeper into the Earth, temperature and pressure increases: lithosphere (cooler, rigid) and asthenosphere (hotter, flows).

Lecture Two

• Wilson Cycle is a repeating process that describes how continents and oceans change over long periods of time that takes ~500 million years for the continents to drift halfway around the planet.

Wilson Cycle Steps

• A New Ocean Opens Up: Continents move apart. Magma comes up creating new seafloor.
• An Old Ocean Starts to Close: Continents get closer, seafloor gets pushed underneath another plate (subduction), the old ocean gets smaller.
• Eventually the old ocean disappears, continents collide and form a giant supercontinents.
• When continents crash, mountains form.
• The supercontinent doesn’t last forever and pressure splits it apart, creating a new ocean. .
• Over millions of years, the continents move again, and process starts again.

The Wilson Cycle

• Affects the Earth’s Climate over long period of time.
• Volcanic activity adds CO2 (Warming Effect) during increased activity via tectonic plates.
• There is also Mountain Building that Removes CO2 (Cooling Effect) due to increased weathering (reacting with water/air, slowly dissolving), taking CO2 out of the air and locking into rocks + dissolved in water.
• There is also Plate Tectonics and Sea Level that increases the albedo.

Module Five: Biosphere

Lecture One

• The Biosphere has a two-way influence on the climate that it depends on.

Life Changes to the Atmosphere

• Photosynthesis: Plants take in CO2 from the air and release O2 into the air (cooling).
• Respiration: Animals and plants take in O2 and release CO2 back into the atmosphere (warming).
• Life Produces Greenhouse Gases which trap heat.
• Albedo is affected where Forests lower albedo, especially in snowy areas.
• Life affects Water Movement called Evapotranspiration combines releases water vapour from land and plants through transpiration and evaporations.
• Climate Shapes Life by determining climate

All living things need:

(1) A source of Energy provided by either the sun, Oxygen and chemical reactions. (2) Raw materials to build bodies through Water, Nutrients, Carbon, and Nitrogen.

Lecture Two

• An ecosystem is a community of living things interacting with each other and with the non-living environment. The three basic parts:

Autotrophs

• Producers the base such as plants on land and phytoplankton in the ocean that create the energy.

Heterotrophs

• Consumers the middle such as animals (herbivores) that eat plants or other animals.

Decomposers

• Recyclers the like bacteria and fungi can return dead animal remains or waste back into healthy soil.
• Nutrients are recycled in a food web, shown by who eats who showing energy flows.

Energy vs Nutrient Flow

• Energy flows one way from the sun.
• Nutrients are recycled in a continuous cycle

Photosynthesis happens when using water, plants, algae and some bacteria make food (sugar). Respiration is the process of which living beings get the energy to make food

Trophic Pyramid

• A pyramid-shaped diagram that shows who eats who along the food chain.
• The 10% Rule states that Only about 10-20% of the energy from one level is passed to the next.
• High and low nutrient levels affect the trophic pyramid and ecosystems.

Productivity

• Refers to how much organic matter (like plant material) is created by organisms.

Categorizations of Productivity

Gross Primary Production

• Total carbon dioxides as food.

Net Primary Production

• Phytoplankton (the base of the chain) that are not used up so that they can be consumed by other animals; leftovers from food.

Biological Pump & steady Primary Production

Regenerated Primary Production

• Nutrients recycled in water.

New Primary Production

• Nutrients coming back up from deep to the surface. So not all nutrients are being consumed at the surface alone, they are brought back.

Export Production

• Some Phytoplankton along animals who consume them due and take nutrients with them into the deep ocean floor forming detritus (bodies, fecal pellets).

The more that dies and sinks into deep ocean, the Biological Pump will naturally store carbon (pulling CO2 out of the atmosphere).

Lecture Three

Photosynthesis is strongest on the surface and doesn’t reach bottom sea water as Sunlight only reaches the top surface ocean (the euphotic zone). Due to decomposition and photosynthesis, there is also the ocean that is split into top and bottom zones.

Ocean Circulation affects the concentrations of Nutrients, Oxygen and Carbon through:

Vertical Mixing

• Winds and cooling water mix up to surface and bring nutrients but also the ocean.

Upwelling’s

• Winds push out surface water where deepwater rises to replace it and nutrients in return with (as well that will make food for other organisms like small animals, fish and eventually larger predators).

Concentrations of Nutrients & Carbon

• Surface Water: Low nutrients but high oxygen.
• Deep Water: High nutrients but low oxygen.
• The above two reasons are why the ocean depends a lot on nutrient & oxygen mixing through ocean mixing Light only reaches the top surface ocean (the euphotic zone), so therefore it’s the strongest on the surface.

Module Six: Carbon Cycle

Lecture One

• Carbon Cycle is how carbon moves between different parts of the Earth (atmosphere, ocean, land and geological reserves).

Carbon Reservoirs

(Stock): This is where carbon is stored with a size.

Carbon Flows

(Flux): This is the movement of carbon between reservoirs, in units per year.

Processes

• These are the actions that move carbon around such as Burning fossil feels photosynthesis, respiration, volcanic eruption and ocean absorption/release.
• The Carbon Cycle has cycles throughout earth
• Carbom can move and be stored in earth through Natural Human processes.

Human's role in the Carbon Cycle can be determined as follows:

Residence Time= Stock/Flow

• Can determine changes when more carbon exists with inflows that out flow/vice versa The world is adding more extra Carbon as well that nature cannot catch up, but tries best to regulate this (direct human impact). Extra photosynthesis is caused by excess carbon flow in human activity as there’s land use impact on where carbon is more retained (indirectly through land use). Humans directly harm the Carbon cycle! With fossil fuels and land use like deforestation.

Timescale is how long someone moves the Carbon around, it can be measured through shorter, medium, of longer timelines + where CO2 is allocated to. Short Timescales (seasonal to 1000 years):- This means that the process occur quickly. Temperature and solar movement affect if the temperature rises.

Medium Timescales are affected through: Ocean Circulation, Biological and Solubility Pumps Long Timescales are affect through: Rock forming (geological movement with CO2 and carbon

Rock Weathering

Weathering removes CO2 because CO2 mixes with rain to form weak acid, this acid breaks down rocks on land.

Carbon Burials happens as a process:

Volcanos add CO2 Carbon Gets Buried Marine animals go into the deep water floor Recycle to turn back into CO2 Stabilizes! For the Earth climates