Earth Science Chapter Review
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Questions and Answers

What is the process of turning a hypothesis into a law called?

  • Developing a theory
  • Testing the hypothesis
  • Making observations
  • Elevating to a law (correct)

    • Which of the following is a characteristic of the first generation of stars?

  • They primarily consist of hydrogen
  • They are smaller and cooler
  • They are larger and burn hotter (correct)
  • They form after the solar system

    • What drives all internal processes within the Earth?

  • Heat from Earth’s formation and radioactive decay (correct)
  • Seismic waves
  • The solar wind
  • The gravitational pull of the moon

    • What forms as a result of compressional stress at convergent boundaries?

    <p>Accretionary prisms and volcanic arcs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of crust is the oldest?

    <p>Continental crust</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What evidence supported the Continental Drift Theory proposed by Alfred Wegener?

    <p>Matching fossil evidence across separated continents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature is formed by extensional stress at divergent boundaries?

    <p>Rift valleys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the material in the upper mantle that behaves with soft, plastic behavior?

    <p>Asthenosphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a phaneritic texture?

    <p>Coarse-grained and visible minerals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT an example of an aphanitic rock?

    <p>Granite</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mineral is likely to crystallize first from a cooling melt?

    <p>Olivine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which geological feature is formed at an ocean-ocean boundary?

    <p>Island arcs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of eruption is characterized by low viscosity, allowing lava to flow easily?

    <p>Effusive eruption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which rock is primarily mafic in composition?

    <p>Basalt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are minerals primarily classified by?

    <p>Principle negative ion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes volcanoes that have not erupted in a long time but are expected to erupt again?

    <p>Dormant volcanoes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main property used to distinguish quartz from calcite?

    <p>Hardness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of boundary is characterized by plates sliding against one another due to shear stress?

    <p>Transform boundaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the texture of obsidian primarily known for?

    <p>Glassy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main process through which sedimentary rocks form?

    <p>Erosion and lithification of sediments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to older crust as lithosphere moves over a hot spot?

    <p>It is pushed away from the plume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mineral will fizz when exposed to acid?

    <p>Calcite</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main factor that determines the behavior of lava flow in igneous rocks?

    <p>Silica content</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a mineral with cleavage?

    <p>It breaks along zones of weaker bonds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of weathering involves the breakdown of rocks into smaller clasts without changing their chemical composition?

    <p>Physical Weathering</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of sedimentary rock is produced in a low energy environment like a lake or ocean bottom?

    <p>Shale</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does increased angularity in sediment grains indicate about their location relative to the source rock?

    <p>They are closer to the source rock.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves the growth of new minerals as a result of metamorphism?

    <p>Neocrystallization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sedimentary rock type is typically associated with high-energy environments such as streams?

    <p>Conglomerate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would indicate a high grade of metamorphism in a rock, such as gneiss?

    <p>It has been buried very deeply.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mud cracks are an indication of what kind of environmental condition?

    <p>Wet fine-grained sediment that dried out</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of weathering is involved when water chemically reacts with minerals, causing them to break down?

    <p>Chemical Weathering</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Physical Geology

    • The study of Earth's materials and the processes that shape and modify the planet is called Physical Geology.

    • The scientific method is used to study Earth.

    • The scientific method involves:

      • Making observations
      • Developing a hypothesis
      • Testing the hypothesis
      • Developing a theory

    • A theory that has been observed throughout the universe is known as a law.

    The Big Bang Theory

    • The universe expands from a central point.
    • As matter accumulates, stars begin to form.
    • The first generation stars are larger and burn hotter than later generation stars.
    • Stars have a life cycle.
    • Heavier elements are formed by fusion reactions during a star’s life cycle.

    Our Solar System

    • The inner terrestrial planets are smaller, rocky bodies.
    • The outer Jovian planets are gas giants.
    • The asteroid belt formed due to Jupiter’s gravity.

    Earth's Structure

    • Earth has an inner core (solid), outer core (liquid), mantle, and crust structure.
    • Seismic waves are used to study the Earth's structure.
    • The magnetic field is created due to the friction between the liquid outer core and the spinning, solid inner core.
    • The asthenosphere is the upper mantle material that behaves with a soft, plastic behavior.
    • The magnetic field deflected solar wind, allowing gases emitted from volcanic eruptions to be trapped by gravity, creating the Earth's atmosphere.
    • Internal processes within the Earth are driven by heat from Earth's formation and radioactive decay.

    Plate Tectonics Theory

    • The Continental Drift Theory was proposed by Alfred Wegener.

    • Evidence supporting the Continental Drift Theory:

      • The fit of the continents.
      • Fossil Evidence that matches across separated continents.
      • Geologic units that match across separated continents.

    • The Continental Drift Theory was rejected due to a lack of a mechanism for plate movement.

    How and Why do Plates Move?

    • Mantle convection (caused by density).
    • Ridge push.
    • Slab pull.

    Crust Age

    • Continental Crust: the oldest is 3.8 billion years old.
    • Oceanic crust: the oldest is 180 million years old.

    Divergent Boundaries

    • Created by extensional stress.
    • Forms mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys.

    Convergent Boundaries

    • Created by compressional stress.
    • Continental collision.
    • Subduction zones - accretionary prisms form here; extrusive igneous rocks form at volcanic arcs, island arcs, and hot spots.
    • Ocean-Continent: Oceanic plate subducts due to density (Examples: Cascades, Andes, Mt.Etna, Mt.Vesuvius)
    • Ocean-Ocean: The older oceanic plate subducts because it is cooler and denser (Ocean-ocean creates island arcs and back arc basins. Example: Mt.Ontake - island arc at ocean-ocean boundary)

    Transform Boundaries

    • Caused by shear stress.
    • Plates slide against one another.
    • Examples: San Andreas Fault, California.

    Hot Spots

    • A stationary plume of magma in the mantle.
    • As lithosphere moves over it, new crust is created.
    • Older crust that is no longer volcanically active is pushed away from the plume in the direction of plate movement.

    Minerals

    • Naturally occurring.
    • Solid.
    • Crystalline structure.
    • Definite chemical composition.
    • A mineral can have the same chemical composition as another.
    • Classified by the principle negative ion in their chemical composition
    • Example: Calcite and dolomite are both carbonates
    • Calcite is CaCO3

    Silicates

    • A very important class of minerals, as they make up the major rock-forming minerals.

    Physical Properties of Minerals

    • Luster: Is it metallic or non-metallic? How does it reflect light?
    • Streak: The color of the powder when scratched on unglazed porcelain.
    • Hardness: A fingernail has a hardness of 2.5; A glass plate has a hardness of 5.5. If you can’t scratch the mineral, and it won’t scratch glass, it has a hardness between 2.5-5.5.
    • Fracture: When a mineral breaks in an irregular manner, like when glass breaks. Minerals can’t have both fracture and cleavage.
    • Cleavage: Minerals break along zones of weaker chemical bonds. Example: 1 direction of cleavage (called basal) in a mica mineral - it peels off in sheets.

    Specific Mineral Info

    • Calcite: reacts with acid - best way to identify it.
    • Pyrite: has metallic luster - ‘fools gold’

    Quartz vs Calcite

    • Both are often clear.
    • Hardness: Quartz scratches glass; Calcite won’t.
    • Acid test: Calcite will fizz; quartz won’t.
    • Shape: Calcite forms rhombohedrons; quartz hexagonal prisms.
    • Cleavage: Quartz has none; calcite has 3 directions.

    Igneous Rocks

    • Form from the solidification of a melt.
    • Can happen inside of the Earth’s surface or if it’s erupted out of a volcano.
    • Classified by their silica content.
    • Their silica content determines the behavior of lava flow.
    • Texture tells you about cooling history:
      • Phaneritic: Coarse-grained; Minerals you can see; Later erosion brings it to the surface; Slow cool underground.
      • Aphanitic: Fine-grained; You can’t see the minerals; Fast cool above ground.
      • Vesicular: Vesicles - Holes where gas bubbles were.

    Cooling History

    • A phaneritic rock cools slowly within the earth (intrusive). This results in a coarse-grained texture. The melt formed slow enough for larger crystals to form. Some examples are granite, diorite, and gabbro.
    • An aphanitic rock cools quickly outside the earth (extrusive). This results in a fine-grained texture. The melt cools so fast that the minerals didn’t grow to a size you can see. Some examples are rhyolite, andesite, and basalt.

    Bowen's Reaction Series Chart

    • Shows how elements come together to form particular minerals at a specific range of temperatures as a melt crystallizes.
    • Olivine would crystallize first.
    • Quartz, Muscovite, Feldspar would be found in granite, a felsic igneous rock.

    Specific Igneous Rocks

    • Diorite: Composed mostly of amphibole and plagioclase, intermediate.
    • Obsidian: Known for glassy texture.
    • Basalt: Mafic in composition.

    Volcanoes!

    • Viscosity = resistance to flow:
    • High viscosity = harder to flow - must be forced out of the volcano. Explosive volcanic eruptions do NOT produce extensive lava flows.
    • Low Viscosity = flows well - ex.Basaltic lavas. Effusive eruptions are characterized by lower viscosity magmas.
    • Dormant is a term given to volcanoes that are not currently erupting, may not have for a long period, but will erupt again.

    Some Volcano Types

    • Cinder Cones: Erupt only once.
    • Supervolcano: Has had a MAJOR eruption - name based on size of eruption, NOT on times it has erupted.

    Some Volcano Settings

    • Mid-ocean Ridges: Cover 70% of Earth’s surface; basalt comp.

    More Volcano Info

    • Mt.Shasta, in northern California (part of the Cascades) will erupt andesitic in composition.
    • Earth’s largest mass extinction is associated with 2 million year volcanic eruptions which built the Siberian traps (flood basalt).
    • Flood basalts are extrusive - they erupt above ground.

    Sedimentary Rocks

    • Loose material breaks off from pre-existing rock to make smaller pieces. (Gravel, salt, silt, clay)
    • Minerals precipitate from solution.
    • Organisms die and their shells accumulate on the seafloor.
    • Heating and cooling is NOT involved in their formation.

    Physical Weathering

    • Produces clasts.
    • Classified based on size- decreasing size range:
      • Pebble
      • Sand
      • Silt
      • Clay
    • Compaction: Creates a sedimentary rock by removing the spaces between the grains.
    • Frost wedging is an example of physical weathering.

    Chemical Weathering

    • Minerals precipitate from a solution.
    • The texture of a chemical sedimentary rock is crystalline.
    • Dissolution and hydration are examples of chemical weathering.
    • Hydrolysis occurs when water reacts chemically with minerals to break them down.

    Clues to Environment

    • In clastic rocks, you can determine how close you are to the source rock based on:
      • Grain size: larger grains are closer to the source.
      • Angularity/Sphericity: angular grains are closer to source.
      • Sorting: more poorly sorted closer to source.

    Clastic Rocks: Relationship between Grain Size and Depositional Environment

    • Conglomerate: pebble-silt; high energy; streams.
    • Breccia: pebble-silt high energy; alluvial fan.
    • Sandstone: sand; mid-energy; beach or desert.
    • Shale: silt-clay; low energy; lake or ocean bottom.
    • A river is a depositional environment where gravel, sand, silt, and mud can be deposited due to the changing energy that rivers have.
    • A desert would most likely produce a pure quartz sandstone.

    Sedimentary Structure

    • Mud cracks form when wet fine-grained sediment dried out (it gets wet, then dried).
    • Ripple marks form as a result of wind or water currents.
    • A Conglomerate is a rock that has a range of grain sizes- from silt to pebble size.
    • Coal is an example of an organic sedimentary rock.

    Soils

    • Soils form from the physical and chemical interaction of rock material with:
      • Organic matter.
      • Rain.
      • Organisms.

    Metamorphic Rocks

    • These rocks are buried, and heat and pressure are applied to pre-existing rock to change them.
    • Rocks experience grades of metamorphism - low, medium, high.
    • Rocks that undergo high grade metamorphism would be buried very deeply (example - gneiss).
    • When a rock experiences plastic deformation, this is associated with differential stress.
    • The types of stress that act on these rocks are: Compressional, Tensional, Shear.

    Metamorphic Terms

    • Neocrystallization: Refers to the growth of new minerals as a result of metamorphism.
    • Recrystallization: Refers to the change in size and shape of mineral grains during metamorphism.

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