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Questions and Answers
What are the four main disciplines that Earth science can be condensed into?
What are the four main disciplines that Earth science can be condensed into?
What is the purpose of the atmosphere in relation to life on Earth?
What is the purpose of the atmosphere in relation to life on Earth?
The atmosphere shields the Earth from harmful UV radiation, maintains the warmth of the Earth's surface, and contains essential gases needed to support life.
The __________ refers to the narrow band on the Earth's surface where all biological life resides.
The __________ refers to the narrow band on the Earth's surface where all biological life resides.
biosphere
Match the following Earth layers with their respective descriptions:
Match the following Earth layers with their respective descriptions:
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What is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the hypocenter of an earthquake called?
What is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the hypocenter of an earthquake called?
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What are the two types of body waves that travel through the interior of the Earth during an earthquake?
What are the two types of body waves that travel through the interior of the Earth during an earthquake?
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Match the following type of fault with its description:
Match the following type of fault with its description:
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Who proposed the Continental Drift hypothesis?
Who proposed the Continental Drift hypothesis?
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Continental Drift refers to the actual movement of continents over time.
Continental Drift refers to the actual movement of continents over time.
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What was the supercontinent named by Alfred Wegener?
What was the supercontinent named by Alfred Wegener?
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The deepest oceanic trench in the world is the Mariana Trench in the _______ Ocean.
The deepest oceanic trench in the world is the Mariana Trench in the _______ Ocean.
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Match the plate boundary types with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the plate boundary types with their corresponding descriptions:
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What is the main vent of a volcano?
What is the main vent of a volcano?
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Pyroclastic flows usually accompany non-explosive eruptions.
Pyroclastic flows usually accompany non-explosive eruptions.
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What are cinder cones made up of?
What are cinder cones made up of?
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Water vapor is one of the most critical greenhouse gases because it helps absorb heat that radiates from the Earth, heating the __________.
Water vapor is one of the most critical greenhouse gases because it helps absorb heat that radiates from the Earth, heating the __________.
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Match the cloud type with its description:
Match the cloud type with its description:
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Metamorphic rocks are formed due to which of the following processes?
Metamorphic rocks are formed due to which of the following processes?
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Foliation in rocks is the result of deformation.
Foliation in rocks is the result of deformation.
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What is the original rock called that is altered to form a metamorphic rock?
What is the original rock called that is altered to form a metamorphic rock?
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Metamorphic rocks are divided into two types based on their __________.
Metamorphic rocks are divided into two types based on their __________.
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Match the following non-foliated rocks with their examples:
Match the following non-foliated rocks with their examples:
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Which principle of stratigraphy states that if a geologic body cuts across strata, it must be younger than the strata it cuts?
Which principle of stratigraphy states that if a geologic body cuts across strata, it must be younger than the strata it cuts?
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What is the driving force of the wind?
What is the driving force of the wind?
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What phenomenon deflects the wind from its original path?
What phenomenon deflects the wind from its original path?
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Which weather phenomena is associated with cumulonimbus clouds, thunder, lightning, and sometimes tornadoes?
Which weather phenomena is associated with cumulonimbus clouds, thunder, lightning, and sometimes tornadoes?
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Hipparchus is known for accurately estimating the distance between the Moon and Earth.
Hipparchus is known for accurately estimating the distance between the Moon and Earth.
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Match the astronomer/scientist with their contribution:
- Nicolaus Copernicus
- Johannes Kepler
- Galileo Galilei
- Sir Isaac Newton
Match the astronomer/scientist with their contribution:
- Nicolaus Copernicus
- Johannes Kepler
- Galileo Galilei
- Sir Isaac Newton
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According to the Big Bang Theory, what event led to the generation of all matter and energy, including space and time?
According to the Big Bang Theory, what event led to the generation of all matter and energy, including space and time?
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Before the universe existed, all matter and energy were evenly spread out.
Before the universe existed, all matter and energy were evenly spread out.
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What is the primary source of heavier elements such as nickel and iron in the universe?
What is the primary source of heavier elements such as nickel and iron in the universe?
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The four inner planets of the solar system are also known as the ______ planets.
The four inner planets of the solar system are also known as the ______ planets.
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Match the following planets with their descriptions:
Match the following planets with their descriptions:
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What is the distinctive shape of Haumea attributed to?
What is the distinctive shape of Haumea attributed to?
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What was Makemake's designation before being classified as a dwarf planet?
What was Makemake's designation before being classified as a dwarf planet?
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According to the core accretion model, how did Earth start to form?
According to the core accretion model, how did Earth start to form?
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What process allowed the Earth to produce layers during its formation?
What process allowed the Earth to produce layers during its formation?
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What is the name of the hypothesis that explains the formation of the Moon?
What is the name of the hypothesis that explains the formation of the Moon?
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What is the boundary between the crust and mantle called?
What is the boundary between the crust and mantle called?
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What rock type comprises the dominant rock in the mesosphere?
What rock type comprises the dominant rock in the mesosphere?
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Water is considered a mineral, True or False?
Water is considered a mineral, True or False?
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Minerals should be ___ solids.
Minerals should be ___ solids.
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Match the following mineral properties with their descriptions:
Match the following mineral properties with their descriptions:
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Study Notes
Earth and Life Science Reviewer
Earth's Vital Statistics and Earth Systems
- Age: 4.543 billion years old
- Equatorial circumference: 40,075 km
- Equatorial radius: 6,378 km
- Polar radius: 6,356 km
- Total mass: 5.972 x 10²⁴ kg
- Total volume: 1.08 x 10¹² km³
- Total surface area: 5.10 x 10⁸ km²
- Average density: 5.513 g/cm³
The Four Spheres of the Earth
- Atmosphere: a collective layer of gas that envelops the Earth, essential for life on Earth
- Hydrosphere: bodies of water, covering 71% of the Earth's surface, composed of saline and freshwater
- Biosphere: the narrow band on the Earth's surface where all biological life resides
- Geosphere: the largest sphere, extending from the surface to the center of the Earth, comprising external and internal processes
The Layers of the Earth and Its Composition
- Based on compositional differences:
- Crust: the outermost layer, divided into continental and oceanic crust
- Mantle: begins where the crust ends, comprising more than 80% of the Earth's volume
- Core: begins at the mantle-core boundary, composed of a Fe-Ni alloy
- Based on physical properties:
- Lithosphere: a thick and brittle layer, comprising the entire crust and uppermost layer of the upper mantle
- Asthenosphere: a mechanically weak layer, consisting of the lower portion of the upper mantle
- Mesosphere: comprised of the lower mantle, reaching the 2,900 km depth
- Outer Core: a liquid layer, made of melted Fe-Ni alloy, responsible for the Earth's magnetic field
- Inner Core: a solid ball, composed mostly of Fe, with temperatures similar to the surface of the Sun
Minerals
- Definition: naturally occurring, inorganic, homogeneous solids with a definite chemical composition and ordered crystalline structure
- Properties:
- Color
- Luster
- Crystal Habit or Shape
- Streak
- Hardness
- Cleavage or Fracture
- Density or Specific Gravity
- Tenacity
- Diaphaneity
- Magnetism
- Effervescence
- Odor and Taste### Minerals
- Halite, also known as rock salt, is a mineral that gives off a salty taste
- Other examples of minerals with unique tastes include borax (sweet), epsomite (bitter), and chalcanthite (sweet but slightly poisonous)
- Minerals can have distinct smells, such as sulfur and pyrite, which have a "rotten egg" smell
- There are thousands of identified minerals, with new ones being discovered every year
- Only a few minerals are abundant on the Earth's crust, known as rock-forming minerals
- Oxygen and silicon are the two most abundant elements in rock-forming minerals, which are used as "building blocks" in the mineral group silicates
Rocks
- Rocks are naturally-occurring aggregates of minerals and mineraloids
- There are three main classifications of rocks based on their formation:
- Igneous rocks (formed from molten material that cools and solidifies)
- Sedimentary rocks (formed from loose material that has been eroded, transported, and deposited)
- Metamorphic rocks (formed when rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures that alter their chemical composition and texture)
Igneous Rocks
- Igneous rocks can form below the surface of the Earth (intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic rocks) or on the surface (extrusive igneous rocks or volcanic rocks)
- Intrusive rocks have larger mineral grains due to slower cooling rates, while extrusive rocks have smaller mineral grains due to faster cooling rates
- The composition of igneous rocks depends on the type of magma or lava they form from, which is influenced by the amount of silica and temperature
Sedimentary Rocks
- Sedimentary rocks are formed from loose material that has been eroded, transported, and deposited
- There are two main classifications of sedimentary rocks:
- Clastic sedimentary rocks (formed from pre-existing rocks and materials)
- Non-clastic sedimentary rocks (formed from chemical sedimentation or organic matter)
- Examples of non-clastic sedimentary rocks include halite (rock salt), gypsum, and limestone
Metamorphic Rocks
- Metamorphic rocks are formed when rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures that alter their chemical composition and texture
- The original rock that is altered is called the protolith
- Metamorphic rocks can be classified into two types based on their texture:
- Foliated rocks (characterized by a planar arrangement of mineral grains)
- Non-foliated rocks (characterized by a lack of foliation)
Depositional Environments
- Depositional environments are areas where sediments are deposited and rocks are formed
- There are three main types of depositional environments:
- Terrestrial environments (land-based environments, such as rivers, deserts, and glaciers)
- Transitional environments (interface between land and sea, such as beaches and deltas)
- Marine environments (open ocean environments, such as shallow marine and deep marine)
Stratigraphy
- Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers, beds, or strata
- The principles of stratigraphy include:
- Law of Superposition (layers on the bottom are the oldest, while layers above are younger)
- Law of Lateral Continuity (each stratum extends laterally until it encounters a barrier or obstacle)
- Law of Original Horizontality (strata are deposited horizontally)
- Law of Cross-cutting Relationships (if a geologic body cuts across strata, it must be younger than the strata it cuts)
- Unconformities are gaps in a rock sequence that can be used to identify the age of strata in relation to other strata
- Techniques such as relative dating and absolute dating can be used to determine the age of rocks and fossils
Fossils and Geologic Time Scale
- Fossils are the remains of life that are preserved within sediments and sedimentary rocks
- Fossils can be preserved in different ways, including permineralization, molds and casts, amber, carbonization, freezing, and trace fossils
- The geologic time scale is a tool used to classify and date rocks and fossils
- The geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages, with the oldest rocks being around 4.534 billion years old
- The geologic time scale is constantly being refined and updated based on new findings and discoveries### Fossils and Continental Drift
- Similar fossil remains of plants and animals were found on continents separated by large bodies of water
- Paleontologists concluded that these organisms couldn't have crossed these oceans due to inherent characteristics (e.g., Mesosaurus lived only in freshwater, Glossopteris seeds were too heavy to be carried by wind)
- This evidence supports continental drift
Similar Rock Types and Geologic Features
- Large mountain belts of similar ages and rock types can be matched across continents
- Example: Appalachian Mountains in North America match Caledonian Mountains in Scandinavia
Ancient Climates
- Evidence of glaciers in present-day continents near the equator (e.g., Africa, South America, Australia) suggests continental drift
- Wegener argued that large tropical swamps co-existed with glaciers, contradicting the idea of extreme global cooling
Plate Tectonics Theory
- After World War II, ocean exploration led to the discovery of the global oceanic ridge system (80,000 km long)
- New oceanic crust forms at the axis of this ridge system, making rocks progressively older and thicker with sediment away from the axis
- This phenomenon is termed seafloor spreading
- The plate tectonics model states that the lithosphere is broken into rigid slabs called tectonic plates or simply plates
Tectonic Plates
- 7 major plates cover 94% of the Earth's surface area:
- African plate
- Antarctic plate
- Eurasian plate
- Indo-Australian plate
- North American plate
- Pacific Plate
- South American plate
- There are also minor plates, such as the Philippine Sea plate, Juan de Fuca plate, Cocos plate, Nazca plate, Scotia plate, and Arabian plate
- Plates are always in constant motion, and their margins interact with each other at plate boundaries
Plate Boundaries
- 3 main types of plate boundaries: a. Divergent Plate Boundaries (Constructive Margins) - Formed when two plates move apart relative to each other - Results in the migration of molten material from the mantle to the surface, generating new crust - Examples: oceanic ridge system, continental rifts b. Convergent Boundaries (Destructive Margins) - Formed when plates move towards each other, resulting in collision or subduction - Results in the consumption of crust - Examples: oceanic-continental convergence, oceanic-oceanic convergence, continental-continental convergence c. Transform Plate Boundaries (Conservative Margins) - Formed when two plates slide past each other, not destroying or producing new crustal material - Examples: transform faults, fracture zones
Earthquakes
- Earthquakes occur when one block of earth slips past another block along faults or fault planes, generating ground shaking
- The area under the earth where the slippage originates is called the hypocenter or focus
- The epicenter is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the hypocenter
Seismic Waves
- 2 types of seismic waves: a. Body Waves - Travel through the interior of the Earth - 2 types: primary waves (P waves) and secondary waves (S waves) b. Surface Waves - Travel on the surface of the Earth - 2 types: Love Waves and Rayleigh Waves
Seismology
- Seismology is the study of earthquakes
- Seismologists use seismographs or seismometers to record earthquakes
- To describe and classify earthquakes, intensity and magnitude are determined
- Intensity refers to the qualitative measurement of ground shaking at a particular location
- Magnitude refers to the quantitative measurement of energy released at the earthquake's source
Faults
- Faults are the rupture surfaces where earthquakes occur
- 4 main types of faults: a. Normal Faults - Hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall - Result from tensional forces b. Reverse Faults - Hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall - Result from compressional forces c. Strike-Slip Faults - Blocks move horizontally to one another due to shearing forces d. Oblique-Slip Faults - Combine shearing and tensional or compressional forces
Earthquake-related Hazards
- Landslides and ground subsidence
- Flooding and water-related hazards
- Damage to man-made structures
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Review Earth and Life Science for the UPCAT college entrance exam with free practice tests. Learn simple science concepts in English.
