Early Civilizations and Mesopotamia

The first civilizations emerged in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
These civilizations developed systems of writing, complex social structures, and new technologies.
Key features of early civilizations include:
- complex social organizations: societies divided into social classes, with rulers at the top, and farmers, artisans, and laborers below
- advanced cities: served as centers for trade, governance, and cultural development
- specialized labor: allowed for the production of surplus goods
- monumental architecture: pyramids, ziggurats, temples, and public works
- record keeping: writing systems used to record events, laws, and information
- organized religion: provided a sense of community and purpose

Located in a fertile region between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in present-day Iraq
The earliest civilizations in Mesopotamia appeared around 3500 B.C.E.
Sumerians were the first to develop a system of writing, known as cuneiform.
Akkadians established the first large empire in Mesopotamia.
Later empires, such as the Babylonians and Assyrians, dominated the region.
Hammurabi's Code was one of the first written legal codes, and set precedent for later law codes in the ancient world.
Other features of Mesopotamian societies include:
- irrigation systems to support agriculture
- wheel, the plow, sailing, and bronze.
- cities like Ur and Babylon
- belief in many gods

Located in the Nile River Valley in North Africa
Emerged around 3100 B.C.E
The Pharaoh was the absolute ruler, considered a god-king.
Key features of Ancient Egypt include the construction of
- massive pyramids
- temples
- mausoleums.
hieroglyphics was the writing system used to record information.
Egyptian civilization was influenced by the belief in life after death
Egyptian society featured a complex social hierarchy, with scribes, priests, merchants, and farmers.
- The nile river and the annual flooding provided fertile land for agriculture

Located in the Indus River Valley (present-day Pakistan and northwestern India)
Flourished from 2500 to 1700 B.C.E.
Cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were well-planned and had advanced sanitation systems.
The Indus script was a system of writing that has not yet been fully deciphered.

Emerged in the Yellow River Valley (Huang He River) and Yangtze River valley.
The Shang Dynasty (1600 – 1046 B.C.E.) marked the beginning of the Bronze Age in China and significant political and cultural development.
The Zhou Dynasty (1046 – 256 B.C.E.) was the longest-lasting Chinese dynasty, known for:
- strong bureaucracy
- development of Confucianism
- iron tools
the mandate of heaven

Emerged in the Aegean Sea, from 2700 B.C.E.
Established city-states (poleis) with their own governments, laws, and cultures.
Greek civilization was dominated by Athens and Sparta.
Ancient Greeks achieved significant advancements in:
- philosophy
- mathematics
- science
- art
- literature
- democracy (Athens)

Located on the Italian peninsula
The Roman Republic (509 – 27 B.C.E.) was established after the overthrow of the Etruscan monarchy.
The Republic expanded to control most of the Mediterranean region.
The Roman Empire (27 B.C.E. – 476 C.E.) was established after the Roman Republic collapsed.
Rome achieved many accomplishments in
- law
- engineering
- architecture
- military organization
- trade
- language, which influenced many languages spoken today.
The Roman Empire fell due to a combination of factors
- economic problems
- political instability
- military challenges

Period between the fall of the Roman Empire in the West (476 CE) and the beginning of the Renaissance (14th century).
Characterized by:
- the rise of Christianity
- the establishment of feudalism
- the development of medieval trade routes.
During this period, a number of powerful empires emerged in Europe and Asia, including:
- the Byzantine Empire
- the Islamic Caliphate
- the Carolingian Empire
- the Holy Roman Empire
The Crusades were a series of religious wars fought between European Christians and Muslims.
The Black Death (1346-1353) was a devastating pandemic that killed millions of people.

A period of renewed interest in classical art, literature, and philosophy.
The Renaissance began in Italy in the 14th century.
Key figures of the Renaissance include:
- Leonardo da Vinci
- Michelangelo
- Raphael
- Niccolò Machiavelli
- William Shakespeare
The Renaissance laid the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Exploration.

A period of exploration and discovery that began in the 15th century
Propelled by advances in shipbuilding, technology, and motivation for trade routes.
Led to the European colonization of the Americas.
Key figures:
- Christopher Columbus
- Ferdinand Magellan
- Vasco da Gama.

A period of intellectual and cultural movement in the 18th century
Emphasis on reason, individualism, and skepticism
Key figures include:
- John Locke
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau
- Immanuel Kant
- Adam Smith

A period of rapid technological advancement that began in Great Britain in the late 18th century
Characterized by the development of new machines, factories, and power sources.
Led to the growth of cities, mass production, and the rise of capitalism.