Early Childhood Development: Ages 2-6

• Early childhood spans ages two to six, marked by rapid physical, cognitive, and socioemotional growth.
• During this time, children develop greater physical control and show curiosity about their environment.
• Parents, teachers, and peers significantly influence a child's development during this stage.

Overall Physical Growth and Development

• Between ages two and six, children grow about three inches in height and gain four to five pounds annually.
• Body proportions change, with the torso lengthening to resemble adult proportions more closely.
• Brain development and motor skill refinement occur rapidly, even as overall physical growth slows relative to infancy.

Brain Maturation

• By age three, the brain reaches approximately 75% of its adult weight.
• By age six, the brain reaches about 95% of its adult weight.
• Myelination and dendritic connections increase, enhancing cognitive abilities and emotional regulation.
• The prefrontal cortex, responsible for decision-making, attention, and impulse control, matures significantly, aiding emotion regulation and structured play.
• The left hemisphere develops rapidly between ages three and six, improving language skills.
• The right hemisphere continues to refine spatial awareness and pattern recognition.
• The corpus callosum grows significantly, improving coordination between brain regions such as coordinated tasks, like using an Etch A Sketch.

Motor Skill Development

• Motor skills, both gross and fine, improve significantly during early childhood.
• Age 2: Runs with improved coordination, kicks a ball without losing balance.
• Age 3: Can pedal a tricycle, balance briefly on one foot.
• Age 4: Throws a ball overhand, hops on one foot.
• Age 5: Skips, jumps, and maintains balance on one foot with eyes closed.
• Age 2: Turns doorknobs, builds small block towers.
• Age 3: Draws circles, feeds self with little assistance.
• Age 4: Uses scissors to cut pictures, buttons clothes.
• Age 5: Copies triangles, uses a knife to spread soft foods.
• Children progress from scribbling to forming basic shapes, eventually creating recognizable objects by ages four or five.

Sexual Development in Early Childhood

• Children exhibit curiosity about their bodies and others' bodies as a normal part of development.
• Self-stimulation and exploration are common responses to physical sensations and curiosity, not sexual in the adult sense.
• Parents should respond to early sexual curiosity with understanding, emphasizing appropriate behavior and privacy.
• Cultural attitudes towards early childhood sexual development vary widely.

Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

• Jean Piaget identified the preoperational stage (ages 2-7).
• This is where children begin using symbols to represent objects and engage in pretend play.
• During this stage, thinking is intuitive rather than logical.
• Symbolic Function Substage (2-4 years): Children use symbols and engage in pretend play such using a stick as a sword.
• Intuitive Thought Substage (4-7 years): Children ask many "why" questions but struggle with logical reasoning.
• Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing things from another’s perspective, such as believing others see the world as they do.
• Conservation: Inability to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement, like a tall glass of water.
• Animism: Attributing life-like qualities to inanimate objects, such as a child thinking their stuffed animal has feelings.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

• Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of culture and social interaction in cognitive development.
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The difference between what a child can do alone and what they can achieve with guidance.
• Scaffolding: Temporary support from adults or peers to help the child learn a task, gradually removed as they become independent.
• Private Speech: Talking to oneself to solve problems, which later transitions into internal thought.

Information Processing

• Cognitive development involves gradual improvements in processing skills rather than distinct stages.
• Executive Functioning: Ability to plan, remember instructions, and control impulses.
• Development of problem-solving skills achieved through repetition and practice.

Attention

• Young children experience significant improvements in their attention span.
• Selective Attention: The ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring distractions, such as concentrating on a teacher.
• Sustained Attention: The ability to maintain focus over time, such as staying engaged in a puzzle for an extended period.

Memory

• Memory capacity expands in early childhood, enabling better retention and recall.
• Working Memory: Holding and manipulating information, such as following multi-step directions.
• Autobiographical Memory: Remembering personal experiences, which improves with language skills and social interactions.
• Use of Memory Strategies: Techniques such as repetition and categorization to enhance recall.

Neo-Piagetians

• These build on Piaget’s theories, incorporating information-processing perspectives.
• Emphasis is placed on working memory and cognitive load as key factors in development.
• Educational strategies include breaking tasks into smaller steps to match children's cognitive capacities.

Children’s Understanding of the World

• Young children develop "theory of mind," which is the ability to understand that others have thoughts and feelings different from their own.
• False Belief Tasks are used to assess if children understand that others can hold incorrect beliefs.

Language Development

• Language acquisition rapidly progresses during early childhood.
• Phonology: Mastering pronunciation.
• Morphology & Syntax: Learning how to structure sentences.
• Vocabulary Growth: Expanding from hundreds to thousands of words.
• Pragmatics: Understanding social rules of communication, such as turn-taking in conversations.

Bilingualism

• Bilingual children often show cognitive advantages in flexibility and problem-solving.
• Code-Switching: Alternating between languages based on context.
• Cognitive Benefits: Improved executive functioning and problem-solving abilities.
• Challenges: Balancing proficiency in both languages and maintaining cultural identity.

Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt

• Erik Erikson’s third stage of psychosocial development, initiative vs. guilt, occurs during early childhood (ages 3-6).
• During this stage, children begin to assert power and control over their environment through social interactions and play.
• Successful resolution of this stage results in a sense of initiative, while failure may lead to guilt.

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

• Self-concept refers to how children perceive themselves, including physical traits, abilities, and social roles.
• Self-esteem is their evaluation of their worth.
• Categorical Self: Young children describe themselves in concrete terms (e.g., “I am a boy with brown hair”).
• Influences on Self-Esteem: Parental encouragement, peer interactions, and early successes shape self-esteem.

Self-Control

• Self-control is the ability to regulate emotions and behaviors in accordance with societal expectations.
• Delayed Gratification: Children who learn to delay gratification tend to perform better academically and socially later in life.

The Role of Play in Psychosocial Development

• Play is crucial for social, cognitive, and emotional development.
• Solitary Play: Playing alone, which fosters creativity.
• Parallel Play: Playing alongside peers without direct interaction.
• Associative Play: Interacting but with minimal structure.
• Cooperative Play: Engaging in organized activities with roles.

The Impact of Social Media in Psychosocial Development

• Technology exposure influences social interactions and self-esteem.
• Educational content and connectivity with family and friends are positive effects.
• Risk of cyberbullying, unrealistic self-comparisons, and reduced physical play are negative effects.

Theories of Gender Development

• Social Learning Theory (Bandura): Children learn gender roles through observation and reinforcement.
• Cognitive Development Theory (Kohlberg): Children actively construct gender identity as they grow.
• Gender Schema Theory: Children develop mental frameworks about gender based on societal norms.

Transgender Children

• Gender Identity Development: Some children experience gender dysphoria, where their gender identity does not align with their assigned sex at birth.
• Supportive Environments: Children supported in their gender identity experience better mental health outcomes.

Parenting Styles

• Parenting styles significantly influence children's development.
• Diana Baumrind (1971) identified four primary parenting styles based on levels of control and responsiveness:
• Authoritative Parenting: High expectations with warmth and responsiveness and encourages independence while setting clear rules. Outcomes include children tending to be confident, socially adept, and academically successful.
• Authoritarian Parenting: High expectations but low responsiveness and strict rules with little room for discussion. Outcomes include children who may become fearful, less socially competent, or aggressive.
• Permissive Parenting: High responsiveness but low expectations and few rules, allowing children significant freedom. Outcomes include children may lack self-discipline and struggle with authority.
• Uninvolved Parenting: Low expectations and low responsiveness and minimal involvement in the child's life. Outcomes include children may suffer from emotional and social difficulties.

Sibling Relationships

• Sibling dynamics shape social skills and emotional intelligence.
• Early Childhood: Conflict over toys and attention from parents is common.
• Middle Childhood: Arguments shift toward control over activities and opinions.
• Adolescence and Adulthood: Bonds either strengthen through shared experiences or weaken due to life transitions.
• Positive sibling relationships contribute to social competence, while negative interactions may lead to long-term emotional issues.

Child Care Impacting Development

• The quality of childcare significantly affects cognitive and social growth.
• Children in high-quality care have better language skills and school readiness.
• Parental Involvement is a more significant predictor of development than childcare itself.

Neglect and Child Abuse

• Child maltreatment has severe developmental consequences.
• Neglect is the most common form of abuse.
• Physical and Sexual Abuse have lasting psychological effects.
• Consequences include an increased risk of depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and cognitive impairments.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

• ACEs, including abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction, affect long-term well-being.
• ACEs increase risks for substance abuse, depression, chronic illnesses, and early mortality.
• Individuals with 4+ ACEs are at higher risk for heart disease, obesity, and mental health disorders.
• Supportive adult relationships and intervention programs can mitigate ACEs' impact.