Drone operation concepts

• During drone operations, focus on three basic concepts: operation centric, risk-based, and performance-based.

Operation Centric

• Focuses on the type of operation being conducted, not who or what is conducting it, or why.
• Consequences of an incident are purely dependent on where it takes place because there is "no one on board" the aircraft.

Risk Based

• Regulations focus on the operational risk to uninvolved persons on the ground or in the air.
• Greater risk necessitates more training and certification for the pilot and operator.
• Based solely on risk, not on whether the flight is for financial gain.

Performance Based

• Focuses on identifying required capabilities or performance levels, avoiding prescriptive rules.

UAV Categories

• Three main categories: Open, Specific, and Certified.

Open Category

• Operations present low/no risk to uninvolved persons.
• Operations adhere to basic, pre-defined characteristics without needing further authorization.

Specific Category

• These operations present a greater risk than the Open Category, or where the Open Category's parameters don't fully apply.
• Operations require authorization from the NAA, based on a safety risk assessment.

Certified Category

• Operations have equivalent risk to manned aviation.
• Subject to the same regulatory regime like aircraft/operator certifications and pilot licensing.

Open Category Subcategories

Open A1

• Applies to small drones under 250g.
• Operations are the least risky, present a very low risk of harm, are considered "toy" drones.

Open A2

• Focus is on flying close to people.
• Drones should be designed/constructed to minimise injury to people.

Open A3

• Flying far from people.
• Drones can only be flown in areas clear of uninvolved persons, avoiding residential, commercial, industrial, or recreational areas.

Product Class Standards

• Aims for standardization similar to the 'CE' marking scheme.
• Unmanned aircraft sold for use is subject to product standards, further subdivided into 5 classes on the EU market.

Drone Classes

• C0: very small "toy" drones under 250g, unable to fly more than 120m from the controlling device.
• C1: under 900g or designed to transmit less than 80 Joules of energy upon human contact, can be flown in all subcategories.
• C2: drones that you will generally be flying. They can be flown in Open A2 or A3, less than 4kg MTOM, minimize injury to people, equipped with 'low speed mode'.
• C3: only flown in Open A3, up to 25kg MTOM, possess automatic control modes, meet remote ID and geo-awareness system requirements.
• C4: like model airplanes, up to 25kg MTOM, don’t possess the automation of multi-copter drones covered in C3.

Distance

• Minimum distance should equal the drone's flying height.
• Distance should never be less than 5 meters. Subcategory A3 conditions can also apply.

Geographical Zones

• Avoid flying in restricted state airspace or prohibited areas.

Open Category Operation Requirements

• Drone has class identification labels 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4.
• Drone is privately built and weighs less than 25 kg.
• Drone was purchased before January 1, 2023, without a class identification label.
• Drone won’t be operated directly over people unless the device has a class identification label, or weighs less than 250 g.
• Drone is maintained in visual line of sight (VLOS), or the remote pilot has a UA observer.
• Drone is flown at a height of no more than 120 m, carries no dangerous goods, and drops no material.

Air Density & Pressure

• As pressure increases, air density increases and vice versa.
• Air’s pressure and density decrease with altitude, negatively impacts drone performance.
• Lack of air density reduces battery life.
• Aircraft's propellers must work harder to maintain height.

Air Density & Temperature

• As temperature increases, air density decreases and vice versa.
• Drone may perform less effectively on warmer days.
• Higher temperatures reduce battery life faster.
• Drones have a limit to how well they operate in cold temperatures.
• LIPO battery failure can cause catastrophic failure of the UAS.

Low Temperature

• Pay attention to low temperature warnings from your drone.
• Find a safe area to land and stop operations.

Air Density & Humidity

• Optimal drone performance conditions are achieved with minimal humidity.
• Humidity increases = air density decreases.
• Humidity decreases = air density increases.
• High humidity causes reduced overall performance.

Atmosphere in Humid Conditions

• Nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere become displaced by water molecules.
• The air is displaced by water molecules, which affects the oxygen levels causing the air to feel so heavy.

Temperature and Height

• Temperature can change due to height along with affecting air density, further affecting drone performance.
• Temperature drops at higher altitudes, allowing better drone performance vs. higher altitudes where the reduction of battery life is quicker.
• Know drone limits to prevent accidents (check manufacturer's guide).
• Upper and lower temperature limits exist, and exceeding these limits can result in electronic failure.

Propeller Icing

• Watch out for a combination of visible moisture in the air as well as freezing outside temperatures. This can cause ice to build on the drone/propellers.
• Propellers are finely tuned aerodynamic surface and must be smooth to function properly.
• Ice buildup causes the propellers to be rendered incapable of generating lift due to the uneven surface and added weight of the ice.
• Visible moisture = fog, rain, etc.
• Risking a crash landing is not worth any footage.

Sea vs. Land Breeze

• Sea Breeze: Occurs on warm days along the coastline as heated air over land surface rises, pulling in cooler air from the sea.
• Land Breeze: Generally occurs at night when land cools faster than water, causing air to be pulled from the land to the warmer water surface.

Operating Near Water

• Keep sea and land breezes in mind when changing locations.
• Relocating to the shore can easily cause wind limitation exceedance from an onshore/offshore sea/land breeze.

Turbulence Details

• Sudden, violent shift in airflow creating up/down currents caused by irregular atmospheric motion.
• Frequently occurs around hills, mountains, cliffs with lenticular clouds as an indicator.
• Prevents sending the drone up in turbulent atmosphere to avoid accidents..

Measuring Wind

• Anemometer: Instrument used to measure wind speed/deduce current speed using an application.
• Beaufort scale: Less common empirical way to measure weather intensity based on wind power for use when anemometers are unavailable.

Wind Limit Precautions

• Know and don't exceed drone limits or ignore warnings.
• Do not fly if unsure of ability to land safely.
• Wind will be stronger (and subject to change) at higher altitudes unless there is temperature inversion.
• Immediately land the drone if a warning mechanism activates due to high winds.

Wind Direction

• Plan outbound mission into or against the wind for safety.
• Outbound leg of mission should be flown into the wind in order to know your UAV is reaching its limits.
• Return flight may be impossible if you did not account for wind, because the air craft may be unable to fly against it and drain the battery faster.

Visibility

• Ensure minimal obstructions and good visibility.
• Fog and mist can contribute to low visibility levels, potentially interfering with drone operations.
• Falling snow impairs VLOS required in the Open Category.

Rain

• Water is a conductor and can reduce image quality or reduce drone performance.
• High IP rating can protect the drone against water, allowing limited entry of liquids.
• Drone failure due to water damage is a matter of when, not if.

Sun Glare Protection

• Wear sunglasses to see your drone.
• Wear polarized sunglasses to see the screen.

Drone Lift

• Molecule on top of the wing has to travel a much greater distance than its counterpart below as the wing is curved on the top.
• As it accelerates, the pressure above the wing reduces, and areas of low pressure above the wing are produced.
• Area of high pressure is created below the wing with slight upward lift.
• Lift is created by differential pressure between the upper and lower surface of the wing, along with slight impinging on the aerodynamic surface.

Flight Envelope

• Region where an aircraft can operate safely.
• Defines operational limits for an aerial platform based on maximum speed and load factor given a specific atmospheric density.

Load Factor Equation

• Aircraft designed to withstand forces in flight.
• Forces are calculated as the load factor which uses the relationship between weight and lift.
• N (load factor) = L (lift) / W (weight).

Take-off Equation

• MTOW – empty weight = useful load
• The maximum take-off weight is the maximum weight at which the pilot is allowed to attempt take-off.
• Example, MTOW = 20kg

Weight Classifications

• Empty weight = all equipment needed for flight, including batteries.
• Useful load = whatever you want to transport.

Center of Gravity

• Imaginary point where the total weight of the UAS is thought to be concentrated for calculations.
• Useful when predicting the behavior of a moving UAS.
• CG can get complicated when third-party components are attached.
• Payload moves the CG outside the drone's limits which has the potential to damage to the motor
• Check manufacturer-recommended accessories to remain in the class you are certified in.
• Adding weight can push your drone out of one category and into another.

Payload Precautions

• Avoid flying in state-restricted areas such as controlled airspace or prohibited areas.
• Drones up to 2 kg and 50 meet transition arrangements from uninvolved.
• Drone carries external loads, if it's secured, is not dangerous, and doesn't affect safe flight.
• Payload needs to be installed with MTOM and CoG limits in mind.
• Do not exceed the MTOM and choose payloads + not be dangerous.

Battery Selection

• Different batteries work better depending on drone type;
• LiPo Batteries: rechargeable lithium-ion batteries which are critical due to its weight. The average battery includes a peak voltage of 4.20v with a nominal voltage of 3.7v.
• LiHV Batteries: high-voltage that differs in nominal and peak cell voltage, LiHV batteries include 4.35v + a nominal with 3.8v.
• NiMH Batteries: rechargeable nickel-based batteries
• 3S1P Means the battery is composed of 3S ( 3 in a series) and 1P (1 in parallel) lithium cells.

Battery Details

• Battery Capacity = maximum amount of extractable energy under conditions is measured in ampere hour (amp-hr).
• C-rating = Capacity for energy a battery can safely charge/discharge - higher C ratings mean more energy to the drone (better performance).
• Memory Effect: Lazy battery effect due to being charged continuously before depleted.
• LI-PO Charging: Make sure battery and charger are compatible.
• NIMH Charging: Only able to be charged with charger specially designed for a NiMH battery and must only be charged for one hour, meaning a rate of 2000 mAh. Must be disconnected once fully charged!.
• LiPo Danger: Do not use LiPo batteries due to spontaneity and danger (thermal runs are a risk).

Li-Po Battery Storage and Disposal

• Storage: Deplete to at least 50% of its rated capacity and in a room temperature fireproof in a Li-Po or safe fire resistant bag.
• Disposal: Dispose if visible damage, bloating, or temperature becomes high

Differentiated Roles

• Drone operator: Person or organization that owns/rents drone(s). Operator can be the remote pilot if they fly it as well.
• Remote pilot: flies the drone. Can be a remote pilot without being the drone operator, such as with an employee
• Pilot vs Operator responsibilities: Both responsible, each complete tasks before flying, guides (mission phases/emergency procedures).

Operational Procedures In-Depth

• Drone operator should develop adaptation procedures, unless operator a remote pilot
• Standard = document best practices and internal processes for safe/effective .flight operation, plus roles/responsibilities, mission phases/emergency procedures
• Areas you are and NOT permitted to fly your drone is Geographical areas vs No Drone Zones
• An uninvolved person is not participating and is unaware of safety instructions.

Involved Persons

• Must give consent to operation that is needed to be ‘involved’
• The definition of an assembly of people = crowd whom are unable to give free consent to fly to be flown over where they are packed close Evaluating distance from people and Low Speed Mode is in Open A2

One to One Rule

• Lateral Distance or Uninvolved Person has to be no less that height
• Visual Line of Sight
• Prevent and limit visual accident by pilots using visual lights and corrective eye ware
• Risk Assessment + IMSAFE assessment
• Prevent accidents with acronymns

PAVE assessment

• Pilot : Compentent , Currency,Enough Experience
• Aircraft : Proper and Known Limit
• Enviorment : Physical Surroundings
• External pressures
• IMSAFE :illnesses,Medications Stress ,Alchohol,Fatique,Eating + Nourished
• Minimize Ground Accidents (Helicopters/Vertiports)

Mitigations on the Ground

• Preventions for any accidents to people in that drone operating field
• Make note and be cautious of every surroundings and individuals on the ground
• Be aware: UA Charactertist Dimension (Dimension,Weight,volume; Speed)

Risk Check List

• Planned the risk area or buffer?
• Flying in controled area?
• Can you always see your drone? ( VLOS)
• Asses Dimensions, Speed and Weight
• Fail Safe System?
• Parachute for impact?

More Battery Info

• Sea Rating/Column = Rating of Discharge
• Battery Charge Time is reduced Battery has classifcation wrriten as 3SIIP

Battery Handling

• Seal all erminals and place in a LiPO in a bag
• Dont heat up exessivly
• monitor bateries while in charge
• Do not leave unattended
• If damaged discard at a recycle center If on fire call is a life battery ( thermal Runaway )

Ideal Battery And 3S1P

• Smart Baterries , smart charge
• Battery cells in 3s1P Series
• Capcitance of Battery

Charger info

• I'll be one C2C3C battery and that's how quickly we can either charge or discharge our battery based on the capacity of the battery
• Manufacturer Plomber should give information on the controlled environment
• Inability to be stable leads to the following of Turbulance
• If you lose battery Mid flight, that will first mean LOW BATTERY
• Second: Critical Battery

PILOT VS OPERATOR

• OPERATOR: is the company that owns the aircraft
• PLIOT : is the individual flying
• Plan in Advance

Planning Your Mission

• Plan based on best to the closest 10 Days
• Upload remote ID against operator ID
• The AA are was pubhlishhed geographic

Operations Near Air Space

Open A2 Cat

• You must stay far enough away from uninvolved person
• Stay as long as the one is in One World.

Minimization

• Be Brief with an involved Person
• Involvees must be aware of Operation/Risks
• AVOID Assemblies
• Distance should be at max (In the one to three category you be set in areas that allow the most height)
• Take to the Telemerry: View the height and distance from the height

Limitations

• Engage low-speed Mode (Under 3MS) .
• One in one world.
• 1,2,3 factor What action is to be take if there is a critical failure?
• What impact can/will occur?

Legacy v Non Legacy Drones

If over 2.5 in the the 3 Category, a low speed will need to be engadged. . Not possible to retrospectivly be class smarted.. Must stick to the standard.

Operator VS Pilot

An Oraganization/Approver the ilder pilots to fly the aircraft. Stay out of vehicles to make sure their not distracted. Person in the world , the person is key. Is explicit the consent

Operating a drone in an operation

Throrough review is needed, explicit consent, no job distraction, the drone needs to be in sight. Need to stay in contant communication to not push to hard as that can lead ot accidents.

• THIS CAN LEAD OT FIND OR JAIL TIME*