DNA and RNA Structure and Function

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Questions and Answers

The two main kinds of nucleic acids are ______ and RNA.

DNA

There are different types of ______, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and noncoding RNA.

RNA

A nucleotide is composed of a phosphorylated ______ sugar and a nitrogen base.

deoxyribose or ribose

The nitrogen base of a nucleotide, either ______, adenine, cytosine, or thymine, is attached to the 1′ carbon of the deoxyribose sugar.

guanine Signup and view all the answers

The deoxyribose 5′ carbon may be bound to one, two, or three ______ groups.

phosphate Signup and view all the answers

RNA contains adenine, cytosine, and guanine but has ______ nucleotides in place of the thymines found in DNA.

uracil Signup and view all the answers

Nucleotide modifications can also result in nucleotides with new ______.

properties Signup and view all the answers

Gram-negative bacteria use modified nucleotides in a type of immune system, the ______ modification (rm) system.

restriction Signup and view all the answers

The bacterium adds ______ groups to its own DNA to distinguish it from that of invaders, such as bacterial viruses.

methyl Signup and view all the answers

Nucleotides are polymerized into nucleic acids by attachment of the 3′ hydroxyl groups on the deoxyribose or ribose sugar to the 5′ ______ group of the adjacent nucleotide.

phosphate Signup and view all the answers

The length of a double-stranded DNA macromolecule is measured in ______.

base pairs Signup and view all the answers

DNA replication takes place during the ______ phase of the cell cycle.

S Signup and view all the answers

DNA synthesis cannot begin without a preexisting 3′ ______ group.

hydroxyl Signup and view all the answers

To begin synthesis in vivo, a ______ of RNA is synthesized by an RNA polymerase (primase) enzyme.

primer Signup and view all the answers

One strand, termed the ______ strand, is copied discontinuously toward the replication fork.

lagging Signup and view all the answers

RNA synthesis is catalyzed by ______ polymerase, which begins polymerization of RNA by binding to its recognition start site in DNA.

RNA Signup and view all the answers

RNA synthesis can start de novo without a ______.

primer Signup and view all the answers

The bulk of DNA synthesis takes place in the ______ phase of the cell cycle.

S Signup and view all the answers

A change in the nucleotide sequence in DNA is called a ______ or variant.

mutation Signup and view all the answers

The term ______ is recommended for nucleotide sequence changes that are inherited (germline).

variant Signup and view all the answers

Point mutations involve one or a few ______ pairs and are classified by their effect on the amino acid sequence.

base Signup and view all the answers

Conservative and silent mutations do not affect ______.

phenotype Signup and view all the answers

A mutation that replaces a guanidine with an adenosine nucleotide at position 2175 would be expressed as: ______G→A.

2175 Signup and view all the answers

Alterations in DNA or protein sequences shared by at least 2% of a natural population are considered ______.

polymorphisms Signup and view all the answers

The different versions of the affected sequences are referred to as ______.

alleles Signup and view all the answers

A well-known example of a polymorphism is the A to T base substitution in the ______ gene on chromosome 11 that causes sickle cell anemia.

beta-globin Signup and view all the answers

The major histocompatibility (MHC) locus is located on chromosome ______.

6 Signup and view all the answers

Each person will have a particular group of ______ alleles, which are inherited from his or her parents.

HLA Signup and view all the answers

HLA proteins coded for by these alleles play important roles in the ______ response

immune Signup and view all the answers

Polymorphisms are introduced in each cell through ______ genetic events

cell-specific Signup and view all the answers

These sequences differ from cell to cell, allowing for the generation of a large repertoire of ______ and antigen receptors

antibodies Signup and view all the answers

Polymorphisms that create, destroy, or otherwise affect sequences in DNA that are recognized by ______ enzymes are detected as RFLPs

nuclease Signup and view all the answers

STRs and VNTRs are head-to-tail repeats of a single base pair to more than ______ bp repeat units

100 Signup and view all the answers

STR testing has replaced RFLP testing for human ______ in forensics

identification Signup and view all the answers

STRs and VNTRs are the markers commonly used to follow ______ of donor cells into recipient blood and bone marrow

engraftment Signup and view all the answers

STRs and VNTRs can be detected as RFLPs or by using ______ procedures

amplification Signup and view all the answers

Only about 2% of the RNA-coding regions are translated into ______.

protein Signup and view all the answers

Some genes code for ______ RNA and ribosomal RNA, which are required for translation of protein-coding messenger RNA into protein.

transfer Signup and view all the answers

Large portions of the genome are occupied by ______, DNA elements that can move from one location to another through an RNA intermediate.

retrotransposons Signup and view all the answers

Noncoding RNA, along with methylated nucleotides and modified ______ proteins associated with DNA, are considered epigenetic mechanisms.

histone Signup and view all the answers

The central dogma of genetics states that genetic information flows from DNA to ______, the process of transcription, and from mRNA to protein, the process called translation.

mRNA Signup and view all the answers

Each mRNA is marked by a guanidine nucleotide covalently attached to its 5′ end in an unusual 5′–5′ ______ (cap).

bond Signup and view all the answers

Ribosomes are organelles that are composed of ribosomal proteins and ribosomal ______.

RNA Signup and view all the answers

The codons are carried from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in mRNA to be translated into ______.

protein Signup and view all the answers

Each tRNA, folded into an inverted “L”-like structure, carries an amino acid at the 3′ end and a 3-base ______ sequence (anti-codon) to the codon of that amino acid.

complementary Signup and view all the answers

Newly synthesized proteins are directed through the ______ reticulum of the cell to their final destination.

endoplasmic Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of DNA within chromosomes found in each cell?

To carry the primary genetic information Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of RNA?

deoxyribonucleic acid RNA (drRNA) Signup and view all the answers

What is attached to the 1′ carbon of the deoxyribose sugar in a nucleotide?

A nitrogen base Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of modified nucleotides in the restriction modification (rm) system of Gram-negative bacteria?

To distinguish between self and non-self DNA Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of nucleotide base modifications caused by environmental insults?

Mutations Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides?

Ribonucleotides have a hydroxyl group on the 2′ carbon, while deoxyribonucleotides do not Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the addition and removal of methyl groups (–CH3) to DNA?

Gene silencing Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of nucleotide modifications in the cell?

To alter gene function Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of RNA-coding regions are translated into protein?

2% Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of transfer RNA and ribosomal RNA?

To translate mRNA into protein Signup and view all the answers

What type of DNA elements can move from one location to another through an RNA intermediate?

Retrotransposons Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for chemical changes in histone proteins, modification of DNA, and noncoding RNA activities that influence gene expression?

Epigenetics Signup and view all the answers

What is the process called when genetic information flows from DNA to mRNA?

Transcription Signup and view all the answers

What is the structure attached to the 5′ end of mRNA?

Cap Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of ribosomes?

To translate mRNA into protein Signup and view all the answers

What carries the codons from the nucleus to the cytoplasm?

mRNA Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a nucleotide sequence change that occurs spontaneously in DNA?

Mutation Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the anti-codon on tRNA?

To recognize the codon on mRNA Signup and view all the answers

Where are newly synthesized proteins directed?

Endoplasmic reticulum Signup and view all the answers

Which type of mutation will likely affect protein structure or function?

Nonconservative mutation Signup and view all the answers

What is the notation for a mutation that replaces a guanidine with an adenosine nucleotide at position 2175?

2175G→A Signup and view all the answers

What is the frequency of occurrence for a nucleotide sequence change to be considered a polymorphism?

At least 2% of a natural population Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the different versions of the affected sequences in a polymorphism?

Alleles Signup and view all the answers

Which gene on chromosome 11 is associated with sickle cell anemia?

Beta-globin gene Signup and view all the answers

Where is the major histocompatibility (MHC) locus located?

Chromosome 6 Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of a mutation that replaces a glutamic acid with a valine at position 6 in the protein sequence?

Abnormal red blood cells that do not circulate efficiently Signup and view all the answers

What is the benefit of having a particular polymorphism that causes sickle cell anemia?

Resistance to malaria Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of HLA alleles in the human body?

They play a role in the immune response Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of adding methyl groups to the bacterium's own DNA?

To distinguish its own DNA from that of viral invaders Signup and view all the answers

What is the direction of DNA synthesis during replication?

5′ to 3′ Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of RNA polymerase in RNA synthesis?

To catalyze RNA synthesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the length of a single strand of RNA or DNA?

Base Signup and view all the answers

What is the phase of the cell cycle during which DNA replication takes place?

S phase Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of DNA replication?

Semi-conservative Signup and view all the answers

What is the requirement for DNA synthesis to begin?

A preexisting 3′ hydroxyl group Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the strand that is copied discontinuously towards the replication fork?

Lagging strand Signup and view all the answers

What is the direction in which the parental template strand is read during DNA replication?

3′ to 5′ Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the enzyme that catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds during DNA replication?

DNA polymerase Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of HLA proteins in the immune response?

To differentiate between self and non-self Signup and view all the answers

What type of genetic events introduce polymorphisms in each cell?

Cell-specific genetic events Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of somatic hypermutation in the generation of antibodies and antigen receptors?

To increase the diversity of antibodies and antigen receptors Signup and view all the answers

What type of polymorphisms are detected as restriction fragment length variations or polymorphisms (RFLPs)?

Polymorphisms that affect sequences recognized by nuclease enzymes Signup and view all the answers

What is the range of repeat units in short tandem repeats (STRs) and variable-number tandem repeats (VNTRs)?

1-100 bp Signup and view all the answers

What is the application of STR testing in forensics?

Human identification Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using STRs and VNTRs in allogeneic bone marrow transplantation?

To follow engraftment of donor cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism by which STRs and VNTRs can be detected?

RFLPs or amplification procedures Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the hydroxyl group on the 3′ carbon of the deoxyribose sugar?

To bind to the 5′ phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the addition of a methyl group to DNA?

Inhibition of gene function Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the 2′ and 3′ hydroxyl groups on the ribose sugar in RNA?

They are characteristic of RNA but not DNA Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of nucleotide modifications in the cell?

To recognize and distinguish self from non-self Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between the nitrogen bases found in DNA and RNA?

DNA has adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, while RNA has adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of nucleotide modifications on gene function?

It can either activate or inhibit gene function Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the phosphorylated ribose sugar in RNA?

To carry a phosphate group Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the nitrogen base ring positions being numbered ordinally?

It allows for the determination of the nucleotide structure Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the methyl groups added to the bacterium's own DNA?

To recognize and target the invader's DNA for degradation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following nucleotide bases is NOT complementary to adenine?

Cytosine Signup and view all the answers

What is the direction of DNA synthesis during replication?

5′ to 3′ Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the primer in DNA synthesis?

To provide a preexisting 3′ hydroxyl group Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of synthesizing RNA without a primer?

De novo synthesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the strand of DNA that is copied continuously in the direction of replication?

Leading strand Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of DNA polymerase during DNA replication?

To catalyze the formation of phosphodiester bonds Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the length of a single strand of RNA or DNA?

Base Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of copying both strands of DNA simultaneously in the same direction?

Bidirectional synthesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the phase of the cell cycle where DNA synthesis takes place?

S phase Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the 5′–5′ bond (cap) and polyadenylation at the 3′ end of mRNA?

To maintain the stability of the mRNA and allow its recognition by the ribosomes Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of epigenetic mechanisms in gene expression?

To chemically modify histone proteins and DNA to influence gene expression Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of tRNA in protein synthesis?

To serve as adaptors between the nucleotide sequence in the RNA and the amino acid sequence in proteins Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the codon sequence in mRNA?

It influences the translation of mRNA into protein Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis?

To translate mRNA into protein Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in ribosomes?

To compose the ribosomes and facilitate protein synthesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the translation of mRNA into protein?

A newly synthesized protein chain Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the anti-codon sequence in tRNA?

To recognize the codon sequence in mRNA Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the 3-base recognition sequence (codon) in mRNA?

It influences the translation of mRNA into protein Signup and view all the answers

What is the fate of newly synthesized proteins after translation?

They are directed through the endoplasmic reticulum to their final destination Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of HLA proteins in the immune response?

To differentiate between 'self' and 'non-self' cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism by which polymorphisms are introduced in each cell?

Cell-specific genetic events followed by somatic mutation Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of RFLPs in the detection of polymorphisms?

To detect polymorphisms that affect sequences recognized by nuclease enzymes Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between STRs and VNTRs?

The number of repeat units Signup and view all the answers

Why are STRs and VNTRs commonly used in forensic science?

Because they are highly polymorphic and can be used for human identification Signup and view all the answers

What is the advantage of using STRs over RFLPs in human identification?

STRs are easier to analyze Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of HLA alleles in parentage testing?

To determine the genetic relationship between individuals Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of polymorphisms in the immune response?

They generate a large repertoire of antibodies and antigen receptors Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of conservative mutations on the amino acid sequence?

They do not affect the function of the protein Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for nucleotide sequence changes that are shared by at least 2% of a natural population?

Polymorphism Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the notation 'c.' in the expression 'c.G2175A'?

To indicate that the mutation is in complementary DNA Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of a frameshift mutation on the protein sequence?

It changes the reading frame of the protein sequence Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the different versions of a sequence that are affected by a polymorphism?

Alleles Signup and view all the answers

What is the benefit of the polymorphism that causes sickle cell anemia?

It provides resistance to Plasmodium species Signup and view all the answers

What is the location of the major histocompatibility (MHC) locus?

Chromosome 6 Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of a nonsense mutation on the protein sequence?

It introduces a premature stop codon Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the notation 'p.' in the expression 'p.G339V'?

To indicate the location of the mutation in the protein sequence Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the change in the nucleotide sequence in DNA?

Mutation Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Nucleic Acids

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid) are the two main types of nucleic acids
DNA carries genetic information within chromosomes found in each cell
RNA has different types: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and noncoding RNA

Nucleotide Structure

A nucleotide is composed of:
- Phosphorylated deoxyribose or ribose sugar
- Nitrogen base (adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T), or uracil (U))
Nitrogen base ring positions are numbered ordinally, and ribose ring positions are numbered with prime numbers
RNA contains adenine, cytosine, and guanine, but has uracil nucleotides in place of thymine

Substituted Nucleotides

Natural modifications of the nucleotide structure include:
- Methylation
- Deamination
- Additions
- Substitutions
- Other chemical modifications
These modifications can:
- Affect gene function
- Result in nucleotides with new properties

Nucleic Acid Polymer

Nucleotides are polymerized into nucleic acids by attachment of the 3' hydroxyl group to the 5' phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide
Phosphodiester bonds form between nucleotides, giving the DNA strands polarity (5' phosphate end and 3' hydroxyl end)
Sequences are ordered in the 5' to 3' direction

DNA Replication

DNA replication takes place during the S phase of the cell cycle
The cell cycle consists of four stages: G1, S, G2, and M
DNA replication is semiconservative, with each strand serving as a template for a newly synthesized complementary strand
DNA polymerase catalyzes the reaction, and synthesis proceeds in the 5' to 3' direction

RNA Synthesis

RNA synthesis is catalyzed by RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase begins polymerization of RNA by binding to its recognition start site in DNA (promoter)
RNA synthesis can start de novo without a primer
RNA polymerase is a more error-prone, slower polymerase than DNA polymerase

Protein Synthesis

The central dogma of genetics states that genetic information flows from DNA to mRNA to protein
Proteins are directly responsible for an organism's phenotype
mRNA transcripts of protein-coding genes are translated into protein
Ribosomes assemble on the mRNA for protein synthesis
tRNA molecules serve as adaptors between the nucleotide sequence in the RNA and the amino acid sequence in proteins

DNA Sequence Changes

A change in the nucleotide sequence in DNA is called a mutation or variant
Mutations can range in size from a single base pair to millions of base pairs
Point mutations involve one or a few base pairs and are classified by their effect on the amino acid sequence
Mutations can affect protein structure or function, depending on their location in the protein sequence

Polymorphisms

Structurally, mutations, variants, and polymorphisms are the same thing—changes in the reference amino acid or nucleotide sequence
Alterations in DNA or protein sequences shared by at least 2% of a natural population are considered polymorphisms
Polymorphic changes may or may not have phenotypic effects
Examples of polymorphisms include:
- Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
- Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
- Short tandem repeats (STRs) and variable-number tandem repeats (VNTRs)

Nucleic Acids

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid) are the two main types of nucleic acids
DNA carries genetic information within chromosomes found in each cell
RNA has different types: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and noncoding RNA

Nucleotide Structure

A nucleotide is composed of:
- Phosphorylated deoxyribose or ribose sugar
- Nitrogen base (adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T), or uracil (U))
Nitrogen base ring positions are numbered ordinally, and ribose ring positions are numbered with prime numbers
RNA contains adenine, cytosine, and guanine, but has uracil nucleotides in place of thymine

Substituted Nucleotides

Natural modifications of the nucleotide structure include:
- Methylation
- Deamination
- Additions
- Substitutions
- Other chemical modifications
These modifications can:
- Affect gene function
- Result in nucleotides with new properties

Nucleic Acid Polymer

Nucleotides are polymerized into nucleic acids by attachment of the 3' hydroxyl group to the 5' phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide
Phosphodiester bonds form between nucleotides, giving the DNA strands polarity (5' phosphate end and 3' hydroxyl end)
Sequences are ordered in the 5' to 3' direction

DNA Replication

DNA replication takes place during the S phase of the cell cycle
The cell cycle consists of four stages: G1, S, G2, and M
DNA replication is semiconservative, with each strand serving as a template for a newly synthesized complementary strand
DNA polymerase catalyzes the reaction, and synthesis proceeds in the 5' to 3' direction

RNA Synthesis

RNA synthesis is catalyzed by RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase begins polymerization of RNA by binding to its recognition start site in DNA (promoter)
RNA synthesis can start de novo without a primer
RNA polymerase is a more error-prone, slower polymerase than DNA polymerase

Protein Synthesis

The central dogma of genetics states that genetic information flows from DNA to mRNA to protein
Proteins are directly responsible for an organism's phenotype
mRNA transcripts of protein-coding genes are translated into protein
Ribosomes assemble on the mRNA for protein synthesis
tRNA molecules serve as adaptors between the nucleotide sequence in the RNA and the amino acid sequence in proteins

DNA Sequence Changes

A change in the nucleotide sequence in DNA is called a mutation or variant
Mutations can range in size from a single base pair to millions of base pairs
Point mutations involve one or a few base pairs and are classified by their effect on the amino acid sequence
Mutations can affect protein structure or function, depending on their location in the protein sequence

Polymorphisms

Structurally, mutations, variants, and polymorphisms are the same thing—changes in the reference amino acid or nucleotide sequence
Alterations in DNA or protein sequences shared by at least 2% of a natural population are considered polymorphisms
Polymorphic changes may or may not have phenotypic effects
Examples of polymorphisms include:
- Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
- Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
- Short tandem repeats (STRs) and variable-number tandem repeats (VNTRs)

Nucleic Acids

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid) are the two main types of nucleic acids
DNA carries genetic information within chromosomes found in each cell
RNA has different types: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and noncoding RNA

Nucleotide Structure

A nucleotide is composed of:
- Phosphorylated deoxyribose or ribose sugar
- Nitrogen base (adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T), or uracil (U))
Nitrogen base ring positions are numbered ordinally, and ribose ring positions are numbered with prime numbers
RNA contains adenine, cytosine, and guanine, but has uracil nucleotides in place of thymine

Substituted Nucleotides

Natural modifications of the nucleotide structure include:
- Methylation
- Deamination
- Additions
- Substitutions
- Other chemical modifications
These modifications can:
- Affect gene function
- Result in nucleotides with new properties

Nucleic Acid Polymer

Nucleotides are polymerized into nucleic acids by attachment of the 3' hydroxyl group to the 5' phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide
Phosphodiester bonds form between nucleotides, giving the DNA strands polarity (5' phosphate end and 3' hydroxyl end)
Sequences are ordered in the 5' to 3' direction

DNA Replication

DNA replication takes place during the S phase of the cell cycle
The cell cycle consists of four stages: G1, S, G2, and M
DNA replication is semiconservative, with each strand serving as a template for a newly synthesized complementary strand
DNA polymerase catalyzes the reaction, and synthesis proceeds in the 5' to 3' direction

RNA Synthesis

RNA synthesis is catalyzed by RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase begins polymerization of RNA by binding to its recognition start site in DNA (promoter)
RNA synthesis can start de novo without a primer
RNA polymerase is a more error-prone, slower polymerase than DNA polymerase

Protein Synthesis

The central dogma of genetics states that genetic information flows from DNA to mRNA to protein
Proteins are directly responsible for an organism's phenotype
mRNA transcripts of protein-coding genes are translated into protein
Ribosomes assemble on the mRNA for protein synthesis
tRNA molecules serve as adaptors between the nucleotide sequence in the RNA and the amino acid sequence in proteins

DNA Sequence Changes

A change in the nucleotide sequence in DNA is called a mutation or variant
Mutations can range in size from a single base pair to millions of base pairs
Point mutations involve one or a few base pairs and are classified by their effect on the amino acid sequence
Mutations can affect protein structure or function, depending on their location in the protein sequence

Polymorphisms

Structurally, mutations, variants, and polymorphisms are the same thing—changes in the reference amino acid or nucleotide sequence
Alterations in DNA or protein sequences shared by at least 2% of a natural population are considered polymorphisms
Polymorphic changes may or may not have phenotypic effects
Examples of polymorphisms include:
- Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
- Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
- Short tandem repeats (STRs) and variable-number tandem repeats (VNTRs)

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Description

Learn about the two main types of nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, their composition, and their roles in genetics. Understand the different types of RNA and their functions.