Diverse Views on Quality

Unit 1: Views of Quality

• Quality can be interpreted in various ways depending on the perspective

Transcendent View

• Quality is an inherent characteristic that is universally recognized but hard to define.
• Quality can be felt or experienced but is not easily measured.
• Often associated with luxury or high-end services.

Product-Based View

• Quality is determined by a product's attributes and features.
• A product with better specifications, durability, or performance has higher quality.
• Assumes quality can be objectively measured.

Manufacturing-Based View

• Quality is defined by how well a product conforms to design specifications and standards.
• Focuses on consistency, defect reduction, and adherence to predefined requirements in manufacturing.

Value-Based View

• Quality is the degree of excellence at an acceptable price.
• Balances performance and cost to provide value to the customer.

User-Based View

• Quality is determined by how well a product or service satisfies customer needs and preferences.
• This view is subjective because users may have different expectations.

Total Quality Management (TQM)

• TQM is a continuous organizational effort to improve the quality of products, services, and processes by focusing on customer satisfaction, employee involvement, and process optimization.
• TQM integrates quality management into the organization's culture and operations.

Principles of TQM

• Customer Focus: The primary goal is to meet and exceed customer expectations.
• Continuous Improvement (Kaizen): Quality is an ongoing process. Organizations must constantly seek ways to improve.
• Employee Involvement and Empowerment: Employees at all levels contribute to quality improvement.
• Process-Centered Approach: TQM emphasizes improving the processes that create the product or service.
• Integrated System: All departments and functions in an organization must work together to achieve quality goals.
• Data-Driven Decision Making: Decisions should be based on factual data and analysis.
• Communication: Effective communication ensures all employees understand quality goals and their role in achieving them.
• Strategic and Systematic Approach: Quality improvement must align with the company's long-term goals and vision.

Continuous Quality Improvement

• Continuous improvement is a fundamental principle of quality management that helps organizations enhance their products, services, and processes over time.
• Methodologies often associated with this principle are Kaizen, Six Sigma, and TQM.

Implement Continuous Improvement Methodologies

• Kaizen encourages small, incremental improvements by involving all employees.
• Six Sigma uses data-driven techniques to reduce defects and variations in processes.
• PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) Cycle:
  • Plan involves identifying problems and developing solutions.
  • Do is implementing the changes.
  • Check analyzes results and gather feedback.
  • Act standardizes successful improvements and repeats the cycle.

Focus on Customer Feedback and Satisfaction

• Conduct surveys, reviews, and direct interviews to understand customer needs.
• Implement feedback loops to make necessary adjustments to products/services.

Employee Involvement and Training

• Train employees on quality standards, new technologies, and best practices.
• Encourage employees to suggest ideas for process improvement.

Standardization and Process Optimization

• Use Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to ensure consistency in operations.
• Identify and eliminate bottlenecks in production and workflow.

Data-Driven Decision Making

• Use Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) to monitor performance and identify areas for improvement.
• Implement Root Cause Analysis (RCA) to find the cause of defects or inefficiencies.

Reduce Waste and Increase Efficiency

• Apply Lean Manufacturing principles to minimize waste and improve efficiency.
• Optimize resource usage (materials, time, energy).

Benchmarking

• Comparing an organization's processes, performance, products, or services against industry best practices, competitors, or market leaders.
• Helps identify areas for improvement, set performance goals, and adopt best practices to enhance efficiency and quality.

Advantages of Benchmarking

• Identifies Best Practices: Helps organizations learn from industry leaders and implement proven strategies.
• Improves Performance and Efficiency: Helps eliminate inefficiencies by adopting better processes and technologies.
• Enhances Product and Service Quality: Encourages continuous improvement by setting higher quality standards.
• Increases Customer Satisfaction: Helps organizations understand customer needs and improve services accordingly.
• Encourages Innovation and Growth: Exposes organizations to new ideas and advanced business practices.

Metrics in Software Testing

• Quantitative measures used to assess software testing processes' quality, effectiveness, and performance.
• Helps in tracking progress, identifying defects, improving efficiency, and making informed decisions about software quality.

Examples of Software Testing Metrics

• Test Case Execution Rate: Percentage of executed test cases. Formula: (Executed Test Cases / Total Test Cases) × 100
• Defect Density: Number of defects per KLOC (thousand lines of code). Formula: Total Defects Found / Total KLOC
• Test Coverage: Percentage of code covered by test cases. Formula: Tested Code Lines / Total Code Lines × 100
• Defect Removal Efficiency (DRE): Measures how many defects are removed before release. Formula: Defects Found in Testing / Total Defects Found × 100
• Mean Time to Detect (MTTD): Average time taken to find defects. Formula: Total time taken to detect defects / No. of defects
• Mean Time to Repair (MTTR): Average time taken to fix defects. Formula: Total time taken to fix defects / No. of defects
• Test Case Effectiveness: Measures the efficiency of test cases in finding defects. Formula: Defects Found / Total Test Cases Executed × 100

Flowchart

• A flowchart is a graphical representation of a process, algorithm, or workflow.
• Flowcharts use symbols, arrows, and text to illustrate the sequence of steps involved.
• Helps visualize processes, making them easier to understand, analyze, and optimize.

Flowchart Symbols

• Terminator (Start/End) represents the beginning or end of a flowchart.
• Process (Action/Operation) represents a step, action, or operation in the process.
• Decision (Conditional Check) represents a decision point with Yes/No or True/False outcomes.
• Arrow (Flow Direction) shows the sequence and direction of steps in the process.
• Input/Output (Data Entry or Output) represents input (user entry) or output (result display).

Metaphor "Customer is King"

• This emphasizes that customers hold the highest priority in a business.
• Highlights that a company's success depends on satisfying its customers.

Key Meanings of "Customer is King"

• Customer-Centric Approach: Businesses must prioritize customer needs, preferences, and feedback.
• Business Success Depends on Customers: Without customers, a company cannot generate revenue or grow.
• Quality Products & Services Matter: To retain customers, companies must provide high-quality goods and excellent service.
• Customer Satisfaction Leads to Loyalty: Satisfied customers return and recommend the business to others, leading to long-term success.
• Competitive Advantage: Businesses that value their customers stand out from competitors.

Organizational Culture

• Refers to the shared values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors that shape how employees interact, make decisions, and work within a company.
• It defines the work environment and influences employee engagement, productivity, and company success.

Key Elements of Organizational Culture

• Values & Ethics: The core principles guiding the organization (e.g., integrity, teamwork).
• Work Environment: The atmosphere and relationships within the workplace.
• Communication Style: How information is shared (formal, informal, open, or restricted).
• Leadership Style: How leaders interact with employees (authoritative, democratic, or laissez-faire).
• Company Norms & Traditions: Established ways of working, such as dress codes, teamwork expectations, and company rituals.

Types of Organizational Culture (By Charles Handy)

• Power Culture: A central authority controls decisions; common in small businesses.
• Role Culture: Employees have defined roles and responsibilities; common in bureaucratic organizations.
• Task Culture: Teams work together on projects, emphasizing problem-solving and innovation.
• Person Culture: The organization exists to serve individuals (e.g., law firms, consulting agencies).

Characteristics of Software

• A collection of programs, data, and instructions that enable a computer to perform specific tasks.

Key features of Software vs Hardware

• Software is Intangible: Cannot be touched or physically measured, consists of code, logic, and algorithms.
• Software is Engineered, Not Manufactured: Developed using systematic engineering principles, unlike hardware, software does not wear out, but requires maintenance and updates.
• Unlike hardware, which degrades over time, software does not physically wear out.
• However, it can become outdated, inefficient, or prone to errors, requiring updates and patches.
• Software is Customizable: Can be modified, updated, and improved based on user needs and allows businesses to tailor applications to specific requirements.
• Software is Highly Complex: Large software systems can have millions of lines of code, making them complex to develop and maintain. Bugs and errors are common due to this complexity.

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

• A systematic process used by software developers to design, develop, test, and deploy high-quality software.
• Provides a structured approach, ensuring efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and reduced risks.

Phases of SDLC

• Planning: Define project scope, goals, feasibility, and resource allocation.
• Requirement Analysis: Gather and document functional & non-functional requirements.
• Design: Create system architecture, UI design, and database structures.
• Implementation (Coding): Developers write the actual code based on design specifications.
• Testing: Identify and fix defects through unit, integration, and system testing.
• Deployment: Release the software for users (either full or phased rollout).
• Maintenance & Support: Regular updates, bug fixes, and performance enhancements.

Popular SDLC Models:

• Waterfall Model: Sequential approach; each phase must be completed before the next.
• Agile Model: Iterative and flexible development with continuous feedback.
• Spiral Model: Risk-driven approach with repeated cycles of development.
• V-Model (Verification & Validation): Testing happens in parallel with development.
• DevOps Model: Continuous integration and deployment for faster releases.

Software Quality Assurance (SQA)

• A set of processes, activities, and standards designed to ensure that software meets defined quality requirements.
• Focuses on preventing defects during software development rather than detecting them later.

Key Activities of SQA:

• Process Monitoring: Ensuring SDLC processes follow quality standards.
• Requirement Analysis: Verifying that all requirements are clear and testable.
• Code Reviews & Inspections: Checking code quality and best practices.
• Testing & Validation: Conducting functional, performance, and security testing.
• Defect Management: Identifying, reporting, and tracking software bugs.
• Compliance Audits: Ensuring adherence to industry standards (ISO, CMMI).

SQA Standards & Models

• ISO 9001: International standard for quality management.
• CMMI (Capability Maturity Model Integration): Process improvement model.
• Six Sigma: Reduces defects and improves efficiency.

Benefits of SQA:

• Ensures high-quality software with fewer defects.
• Reduces development costs by catching issues early.
• Increases customer satisfaction with reliable software.
• Helps in faster delivery of software products.

Quality Management System (QMS)

• A structured framework of policies, processes, procedures, and resources aimed at ensuring consistent quality in products or services.
• Helps organizations meet customer expectations and regulatory requirements while improving efficiency.

Structure of a QMS

• Quality Policy & Objectives: A formal statement defining the organization's commitment to quality and sets measurable goals for quality improvement.
• Organizational Structure & Responsibilities: Defines roles, responsibilities, and authority for quality-related tasks and establishes a chain of command and reporting mechanisms.
• Processes & Procedures: Documents SOPs for all critical activities and ensures consistency in production, testing, and service delivery.
• Document Control & Records Management: Maintains proper documentation of policies, manuals, and work instructions and ensures version control and accessibility of records.
• Risk Management & Continuous Improvement: Identifies risks affecting quality and implements mitigation strategies, uses PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) for continuous quality improvement.
• Training & Competence Management: Ensures employees receive regular training on quality standards and best practices and tracks staff competency and certifications.
• Internal & External Audits : Conducts regular internal audits to ensure compliance with QMS and prepares for external audits by certification bodies like ISO 9001.
• Customer Feedback & Corrective Actions: Gathers customer complaints, reviews, and satisfaction surveys and implements corrective and preventive actions (CAPA) to resolve issues.

Common QMS Standards

• ISO 9001; International standard for quality management.
• CMMI (Capability Maturity Model Integration); Improves software development processes.
• Six Sigma: Reduces defects and improves process efficiency.

Unit 2: Software Testing

• Software Testing is the process of evaluating a software application to identify defects, errors, or gaps in its functionality.

What is Testing Needed?

• Ensures Software Quality, verifies that the software meets user and business requirements.
• Identifies & Fixes Bugs, detects defects before software deployment, reducing system failures.
• Improves Performance & Security, ensures the software runs efficiently and is protected against vulnerabilities.
• Enhances User Experience, helps create a smooth, bug-free experience, increasing customer satisfaction.
• Saves Time & Costs, early defect detection prevents costly fixes in later stages of development.
• Ensures Compliance & Reliability, meets industry standards (ISO, CMMI) and ensures system stability.

Fundamentals Process of Testing

• A structured approach used to verify that a software application functions correctly and meets its intended requirements.
• Testing, planning, and control is key to achieving this and other goals.

Test Planning & Control

• This is the initial stage, test strategy, scope, objectives, and resources are defined.
• Test manager creates a test plan, which serves as a guide for the entire testing process.
• Ensures all requirements are covered before testing begins.
• Defines the test schedule, budget, and risk management strategies, assigning roles and responsibilities to team members.

Test Analysis & Design

• This phase involves identifying test conditions, preparing test cases, and setting up the test environment.
• Testers define the expected outcomes for each test case.
• Ensures that test cases cover all functional and non-functional requirements.
• Helps in identifying edge cases (rare scenarios) that might cause failures.
• Reduces the chances of missing critical issues.

Test Implementation & Execution

• In this phase, test cases are executed manually or through automated scripts, and the actual results are compared with expected results.
• Any deviations are logged as defects.
• What it is - a way to detect software defects and helps in improving quality
• To ensures all features work as expected under different conditions, in order to provides evidence of software performance and reliability.

Evaluating Test Results & Reporting Defects

• After execution, testers analyze the results to determine whether tests have passed or failed.
• Bugs are logged in a defect-tracking system (e.g., JIRA, Bugzilla) with detailed descriptions. What it is;
• Helps developers understand and fix issues efficiently, to ensure defects are prioritized based on their severity (critical, major, minor).
• Documents test coverage and system stability.

Test Closure & Maintenance

• This final phase occurs when testing is completed.
• The team reviews test coverage, analyzes lessons learned, and archives test cases for future reference.
• If the software is deployed, ongoing maintenance testing ensures stability after updates.
• What it is to confirm that all major defects have been fixed before release, helps improve future testing processes.
• Ensures continuous quality in later versions of the software.

Testing and the SDLC

• Involves a constant process that ensures the software meets quality standards throughout the development of the software.
• Testing is integrated at multiple stages to find and fix defects

Requirement Analysis Phase

• Verification Testing: Ensures that requirements are well-defined, unambiguous, and testable.
• Identifies missing or conflicting requirements before development starts, which prevents costly rework.

Design Phase

• Involves - Test, planning & Review
• Static Testing (reviewing documents) helps detect design flaws before coding begins.
• Reduces defects in UI, database structure, and system flow, saving time.

Development Phase

• Unit Testing: Detects issues like incorrect calculations, missing logic, or syntax errors at the code level.
• Ensures that each function, method, or class works as intended before moving to integration.

Integration Phase

• Integration Testing ensures data flow between modules is error-free.
• Detects issues like incorrect API responses, broken data transfers, or incompatible modules.

Testing Phase

• System Testing checks the entire application under real-world conditions.
• User Acceptance Testing (UAT) ensures the software meets user expectations before release.
• Non-functional testing (performance, security, usability) ensures stability and efficiency.

Deployment Phase

• Final testing ensures no major defects exist before Smoke Testing before its shipped out and Regression testing is performed.

Maintenance Phase

• Regression Testing ensures updates don't introduce new bugs and keeps it reliable over time.

Principles of Testing

• A series of fundamental principles that help the testers be efficient and reliable for defects, for optimal design and effectiveness when defect detection.

Testing Shows Presence of Defects, Not Their Absence

• The goal is to reduce defects and minimize risk, not to prove perfection.

Exhaustive Testing is Impossible

• Instead, testers use risk-based testing, selecting the most important and frequently used scenarios, by using less time and resources.

Early Testing Saves Time and Money

• Early testing (like requirement validation and unit testing) prevents major issues from escalating.
• Detecting defects early in the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) reduces rework and costs.

Defects Cluster Together

• Testers prioritize these high-risk areas to maximize defect detection.
• Most defects tend to occur in specific modules due to complex logic or frequent modifications.

Pesticide Paradox

• Running the same test cases repeatedly will eventually stop finding new defects.
• Testers must modify test cases and introduce new testing approaches.

Testing is Context-Dependent

• Testing strategies differ based on the type of application.
• A banking app requires strict security and functional testing, while a video game needs performance and graphics testing.

Absence of Errors is a Fallacy

• Even if software has zero defects, it may still fail to meet user needs.
• The focus should not just be on bug-free software but also on meeting business goals and user expectations.

Test Policy vs Test Strategy

• Test Policy Defines the organization's overall approach to testing while the Test Strategy specifies the testing approach for a specific project.
• Test managers or project teams are responsible for the Test Strategy.

Test Team Efficiency

• Test team efficiency refers to how effectively a software testing team detects defects, executes test cases, and ensures software quality within a given timeframe and resources.

Clear Test Objectives & Planning

• Well-defined test plan ensures structured testing and minimizes rework and test align with project and business goals.

Test Automation & Tools

• Automating tests using tools increases efficiency and human errors and speeds up execution.

Skillset & Training

• A skilled team improves and enhances defect detection in their expertise.

Effective Communication & Collaboration

• Clear coordination prevents misunderstandings, Agile methodologies ensures rapid feedback loops.

Defect Tracking & Reporting

• The use of bug tracking tools helps prioritize and fix issues faster.

Challenges in Testing

• This affects the accuracy, and effectiveness of testing.

Lack of Clear Requirements

• Hard to design clear test cases, tests irrelevant scenarios.

Time and Resource Constraints

• Can lead to incomplete testing.

Exhaustive Testing is Impossible

• Select the most impactful test cases.

Finding and Reproducing Defects

• Difficult to fix, requires detailed bug reports.

Frequent Code Changes

• Must test rapidly.

Test Team Members Include

• Test Manager / QA Manager, Test Lead / Test Coordinator, Test Engineer / QA TesterManual Tester, Automation Tester / SDET the (Software Development Engineer in Test)
• As Well as; Performance Tester, Security Tester / Penetration Tester, DevOps Engineer (Testing in CI/CD), and Test Analyst / QA Analyst

Define "defect","error", and "mistakes"

• Mistakes- a human action,
• Error - an errors in code, and
• Defect - deviations in errors of codes.

What skills is required by the tester

• The following key skills: Analytics & logical testing & Attention-to-Detail, with Knowledge of Software Test Methodologies,
• Understanding of testing concepts (SDLC)

Test Plan Writing

• Using well structured cases, to improve test.

Bug Tracking

• Using jira to track & find defects for developers.

Explain Spiral Model?

• Involves waterfall model
• High Risk with large projects needing evaluations.

Phases of Steps

• Steps with Planning, Risk Analysis Prototyping, Development and testing, then review.

TestLevels

• Individual tests, or functions of parts of software with many levels.

Unit 3 - Explain Unit Testing?

• Is the first stage, were codes are tested for errors, with isolation to see if codes are working.

Write test cases to see if they are working by using a tool the run debugs and fix.

• Finding issues early and improves code quality and easier debugging to show changes

Boundary Value Testing?

• Boundaries that find areas with large values.

The system accepts numbers between 1 and 100.

• The values are (1) ,8. Minimum, (2) = Minimum + 1 (2), 9.
• Maximum - 1Invalid, (100)
• Invalid Above the maximum

Robust Value Testing?

• Is an Extension that uses and checks the systems
• Extends by using and including test cases to see any errors in the testing

L+1, U-1, By extending this by testing: L1 U+1.

A system by validates input

• Helps fix errors and problems in the BVT

What is a special Value testing

• Is to test if there will causes errors in parts that create problems

Cannot use for triggers of Unique

• By focusing and looking, is one of the characteristics

Explain random testing

• Involves creating inputs, that follow pattern that shows software failures

Tests run within specific range

• There will be a crash if there issues.
• No logic is selected when choosing options
• For stressful issues that show failures.

Explain traditional equivalence class testing

• With test cases from each class should too work just well.

Use this for every input that is practical

• For testing of Inputs.
• Find valid Invalid Inputs with range.

Reduces multiple cases

• To show less redundant issues.

Explain various types of equivalence class testing

• There are multiple types of test such as Weak Normal Equivalence Testing and Strong robust and traditional
• Limits for class and data values.

Unit 4 - Explain software verification and its features?

• Verifies and checks system that it meets standards by logic, and the design.

By ensures, that the process of work are followed when needed before execution

• Can be done by performing methods.

Uses formal techniques

• Is mathmatically provne with informally.

Verification workbench diagram

• Structed framework, which provies to verify is needed for artifact.
• By ensures and verifies meet specifications before executions.

Requirement and Design

• Ensures the design, meets requirements and that there is logical flaws.

Ensure code meets the best practices/compliancy.

• By ensuring to follow codes and standard.

Formal methods, documentation, and tool.

Is use of different methods of verification by systematically before executions.

Includes Reviews:

• A systematic examination of software artefacts.

With Review

• Conduct by members of the team, by there is formal that uses stakeholders and criteria such is technical, and walkthroughs

Testing

• The systematic to review and understand.

Static analysis

• Is to use without the codes to check syntax.

Tools are used to detect code leakages when codes is pre compiled.

Explain what is a types of reviews on the base

• Different stage Reviews with requiremnts

Analyists stakeholders, and projt managers for test

• To do testing in testing ohase.

What are the entities in verification

• Involved to support requirements.

To confirm clearcity

• To make sure the software, is ready to deliver with what the steps is.

Is it compliant in the end.

Explain validation?

• Is to check the software to make sure is working according to requiemens and make sure.

That the software works as designed

• Includes validation tools.

Validation tool

• By requirement that ensures data use case prototyype

In order too develop test plans, there has to be set.

In the set has to be tools for the test.

By set the code compliantly!

What is test range validation?

• Focuses to meet with function compliantly and see areas.

That show a coverage for requirements

• with the data that the company want it to validate

Code that shows with compliance for the law.

Validates how the support is easy.

Explain acceptance test?

• Ensures are test phase meets user and needs before there deployment

Checks with the business needs what was proposed meets needs for production for deplymwnt it.

Unit 5 - Proposal Testing

• Involves, evaluating, to see objectives.

To make sure its, test budget to make sure it works.

Requierent Testing

• Involve check, the funciton and make sure is aligned and tested.

Requirement view & Test Testcase design for requirment before expectation.

Explain Levels of Testing?

To make sure they're functions work in each system.

What are these levels?

1. Integration 2. and system with the user

Unittest, Is codes tests.

Explain Code reviews

• Looking at code to make sure everything works 1+ In all aspect to meet it.

What is to detail intergration?

• By working and checking with one parts
• Check problems with data.

Expain module

. By use the tools

• White box : tests interal parts and functions
• Balck box: tests how things function within
• Gray box mix balck and white

What happen in this testing

• Testing assess its use speed for different test load

Check the ability system with support.

Expalin installaition and testting:

• Test when programs and installs
• • GUI TESTING: Test interface of ui and functions.
• *RECOVERY and COMPALY and inter system testing; check for files system intergrety,.