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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of salivary amylase in the mouth?
What is the primary function of salivary amylase in the mouth?
What role do villi and microvilli play in the digestive system?
What role do villi and microvilli play in the digestive system?
What is chyme?
What is chyme?
How does the lower esophageal sphincter function in the digestive process?
How does the lower esophageal sphincter function in the digestive process?
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Which process primarily occurs in the small intestine?
Which process primarily occurs in the small intestine?
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What is the main purpose of mechanical digestion in the mouth?
What is the main purpose of mechanical digestion in the mouth?
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What type of digestion is primarily carried out in the stomach?
What type of digestion is primarily carried out in the stomach?
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What happens during excretion in the digestive system?
What happens during excretion in the digestive system?
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What happens during the S Phase of the cell cycle?
What happens during the S Phase of the cell cycle?
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Which of the following describes the function of the G2 Checkpoint?
Which of the following describes the function of the G2 Checkpoint?
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In which phase of the cell cycle does the cell prepare for mitosis?
In which phase of the cell cycle does the cell prepare for mitosis?
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What is the primary purpose of checkpoints in the cell cycle?
What is the primary purpose of checkpoints in the cell cycle?
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Which phase is characterized by the alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate?
Which phase is characterized by the alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate?
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What occurs during Telophase?
What occurs during Telophase?
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What is the role of histone proteins during the S Phase?
What is the role of histone proteins during the S Phase?
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What distinguishes cytokinesis in animal cells from that in plant cells?
What distinguishes cytokinesis in animal cells from that in plant cells?
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What is the primary purpose of classifying organisms into different phyla?
What is the primary purpose of classifying organisms into different phyla?
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What level of classification is more specific than genus?
What level of classification is more specific than genus?
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Who developed the system of Binomial Nomenclature?
Who developed the system of Binomial Nomenclature?
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Which of the following statements about the genus and species in scientific naming is true?
Which of the following statements about the genus and species in scientific naming is true?
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Which classification level groups families with similar characteristics?
Which classification level groups families with similar characteristics?
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What is the classification for domestic cats in the family level?
What is the classification for domestic cats in the family level?
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Why is a universal naming system important in biology?
Why is a universal naming system important in biology?
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What kind of information is typically used in classifying organisms?
What kind of information is typically used in classifying organisms?
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What is the primary function of the pyloric sphincter?
What is the primary function of the pyloric sphincter?
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Which segment of the small intestine is primarily responsible for nutrient absorption?
Which segment of the small intestine is primarily responsible for nutrient absorption?
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What is the role of bile produced by the liver?
What is the role of bile produced by the liver?
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How do complex carbohydrates differ from simple carbohydrates?
How do complex carbohydrates differ from simple carbohydrates?
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Which of the following nutrients must be obtained through diet as they are essential?
Which of the following nutrients must be obtained through diet as they are essential?
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What function does the large intestine serve in the digestive process?
What function does the large intestine serve in the digestive process?
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Which accessory organ produces digestive enzymes that aid in digestion?
Which accessory organ produces digestive enzymes that aid in digestion?
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What is one of the functions of beneficial bacteria in the large intestine?
What is one of the functions of beneficial bacteria in the large intestine?
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What is the main purpose of mitosis in multicellular organisms?
What is the main purpose of mitosis in multicellular organisms?
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How many rounds of division occur during meiosis?
How many rounds of division occur during meiosis?
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What is produced at the end of meiosis?
What is produced at the end of meiosis?
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What process during prophase I contributes to genetic variation?
What process during prophase I contributes to genetic variation?
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What type of cells contain one set of chromosomes?
What type of cells contain one set of chromosomes?
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In a Punnett square cross of two heterozygous plants (Pp), what is the phenotypic ratio of purple to white flowers?
In a Punnett square cross of two heterozygous plants (Pp), what is the phenotypic ratio of purple to white flowers?
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What is the highest taxonomic rank in biological classification?
What is the highest taxonomic rank in biological classification?
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Which kingdom is included in the domain Eukarya?
Which kingdom is included in the domain Eukarya?
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Study Notes
Digestive System
- The digestive system is responsible for breaking down food into nutrients the body can use.
- The process involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and excretion.
- Mechanical digestion starts in the mouth with chewing, breaking down food into smaller pieces, increasing surface area for enzymes.
- Chemical digestion involves enzymes breaking down food.
- Salivary amylase in the mouth starts carbohydrate digestion.
- Gastric juice (hydrochloric acid and pepsin) in the stomach starts protein digestion.
- The small intestine absorbs most nutrients into the bloodstream. Structures called villi and microvilli increase surface area for nutrient absorption.
- The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes.
- The large intestine houses beneficial bacteria that aid in digestion and synthesize some vitamins.
Stages of Digestion
- Mouth: Mechanical digestion via chewing and chemical digestion via salivary amylase.
- Esophagus: Peristalsis moves food to the stomach. The lower esophageal sphincter prevents stomach contents from flowing back.
- Stomach: Food mixes with gastric juices to create chyme. Gastric acid activates pepsinogen into pepsin. The acidic environment kills pathogens. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of chyme into the small intestine.
- Small Intestine: Three segments: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum receives bile (from the liver) and pancreatic enzymes. Nutrient absorption mainly occurs in the jejunum and ileum.
- Large Intestine: Absorbs water and electrolytes, compacts waste into solid feces. Stores waste in the rectum until excretion through the anus.
Accessory Organs
- Liver: Produces bile for fat digestion and absorption, metabolizes nutrients, detoxifies harmful substances, and stores glycogen, vitamins, and minerals.
- Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes for the small intestine and regulates blood sugar levels with insulin and glucagon.
- Gallbladder: Stores and concentrates bile until needed in the small intestine.
Nutrients and their Functions
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Macronutrients:
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Carbohydrates:
- Simple Carbohydrates: Found in fruits, dairy, and table sugar. Provide quick energy but should be consumed in moderation.
- Complex Carbohydrates: Found in whole grains, legumes, and vegetables. Offer sustained energy and dietary fiber.
- Proteins: Essential for building and repairing tissues. Composed of amino acids; 9 are essential and must be obtained through diet.
- Fats: Important for energy storage, hormone production, and cell membrane structure. Can be saturated (solid at room temperature) or unsaturated (liquid at room temperature).
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Carbohydrates:
Cell Cycle
- The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a cell leading to its growth and eventually division.
- The cycle is divided into phases for regulation:
-
Interphase:
- G1 Phase (Gap 1): Cell grows, produces proteins and organelles.
- S Phase (Synthesis): DNA replication occurs.
- G2 Phase (Gap 2): Cell continues to grow and prepares for mitosis.
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M Phase (Mitosis): Nuclear division occurs.
- Prophase: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and the spindle fibers begin forming.
- Metaphase: Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
- Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles.
- Telophase: Chromatids reach the poles, the nuclear envelope reforms, and chromosomes decondense.
- Cytokinesis: The cytoplasm divides, resulting in two separate cells.
-
Interphase:
Regulation of the Cell Cycle
- Checkpoints ensure proper cell division:
- G1 Checkpoint: Ensures cell size, nutrient availability, and DNA integrity before DNA replication.
- G2 Checkpoint: Ensures DNA has been replicated correctly and there are no damages before entering mitosis.
- M Checkpoint: Ensures chromosomes are properly attached to spindle fibers before separation.
Types of Cell Division
- Mitosis: For growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction. Produces two identical daughter cells.
- Meiosis: Reduces chromosome number by half to produce haploid gametes (sperm and egg). Involves two rounds of division.
Genetics
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Chromosomes: Structures containing DNA wrapped around histone proteins.
- Diploid (2n): Two sets of chromosomes.
- Haploid (n): One set of chromosomes.
- Punnett Squares: Tools to predict the probability of offspring inheriting traits based on parental genotypes.
Classification and Taxonomy
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Levels of Biological Classification:
- Domain: The highest taxonomic rank; includes three: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
- Kingdom: Subdivisions within domains. (e.g. Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista are within Eukarya)
- Phylum: Groups based on body plans or structural features.
- Class: Further subdivides phyla (e.g. Mammalia)
- Order: Groups families with similar characteristics.
- Family: Grouping of related genera.
- Genus: Grouping of species that are closely related.
- Species: The most specific level; a group of individuals that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
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Scientific Naming: Binomial nomenclature, developed by Carl Linnaeus. Each species has a two-part name:
- genus (capitalized) followed by species (lowercase), both italicized.
Examples of Organisms
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Human:
- Scientific Name: Homo sapiens
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Classification:
- Domain: Eukarya
- Kingdom: Animalia
- Phylum: Chordata
- Class: Mammalia
- Order: Primates
- Family: Hominidae
- Genus: Homo
- Species: sapiens
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Dog:
- Scientific Name: Canis lupus familiaris
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Classification:
- Domain: Eukarya
- Kingdom: Animalia
- Phylum: Chordata
- Class: Mammalia
- Order: Carnivora
- Family: Canidae
- Genus: Canis
- Species: lupus familiaris
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Description
Explore the fascinating processes of the digestive system, including how food is ingested, digested, absorbed, and excreted. Learn about the roles of various organs, enzymes, and the stages of digestion from the mouth to the large intestine.
