Dietary Minerals: Macro and Trace Elements

Minerals Overview

• These are inorganic elemental atoms essential as nutrients.
• Digestion or metabolism does not change them.

Dietary Minerals

• Dietary minerals are classified into two groups: macrominerals and trace minerals.
• Macrominerals are required in daily amounts greater than 100 mg.
• Microminerals (trace elements) are needed in daily amounts less than 100 mg.
• Macrominerals include calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chloride and sulfur.
• Trace elements include iron, iodine, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, selenium, and fluoride.
• Chromium, nickel, bromine, lithium, and barium have unknown functions.
• Rubidium, silver, gold, and bismuth are nonessential contaminants in foodstuffs.
• Aluminum, lead, cadmium, and mercury are toxic and avoided.

Functions of Minerals

• Minerals act as cofactors, participating with enzymes in metabolic processes.
• Some minerals such as Calcium, Phosphorus and Sulfur, contribute to the structure of bones or keratin.
• Sodium, potassium and chloride provide for acid-base and water balance in the body.
• Nerve and muscle function is provided by calcium, sodium, and potassium.
• Unique functions include heme from iron, B12 from Cobalt and hormones from the thyroid.

Bioavailability and Regulation

• Bioavailability is influenced by genetics, aging, nutritional status and other food compounds.
• Absorption occurs in the small and large intestines.
• The kidneys and small intestine regulate mineral levels.

Minerals in Foods

• Minerals are found amongst all food groups
• More reliable mineral sources are animal products
• Other substances decrease mineral absorption, affecting bioavailability.
• Oxalate found in spinach prevents absorption of most of the calcium from spinach
• Phytate, a form of phosphorous in most plants, reduce availability.

Factors Affecting Requirements

• Requirements are affected by physiological state/level of production, interactions with other minerals, and tissue storage.
• Most minerals have an optimal range.
• Deficiencies occur below the range, whereas toxicity arises above the range

Calcium

• The most abundant mineral in animal tissues.
• About 99% is in the skeleton.
• Calcium is present in blood, other tissues and has various functions including bone structure, nerve function, blood clotting, muscle contraction, and cellular metabolism.
• Milk and dairy products are high in bioavailability and Calcium, with high amounts of calcium, even more if fortified with vitamin D.
• Green leafy vegetables and fortified juices/cereals are good sources for calcium.
• Adults should intake ~500mg daily, whereas children need 1200 mg daily.
• Calcium absorption is dependent on Vitamin D through calcium binding protein in intestinal epithelial cells.
• Absorption increases during growth, pregnancy and lactation.
• Bioavailability is decreased by phytates (grains), oxalates, wheat bran, and low estrogen levels (postmenopausal women).
• The regulation of calcium levels involves three hormones: Vitamin D3, parathyroid hormone (PTH), and calcitonin.
• Vitamin D3 comes from the kidney and PTH Parathyroid hormone comes from the parathyroid hormone.
• Calcitonin comes from the thyroid.
• Responses to low blood calcium are: parathyroid hormone (PTH) released, stimulating conversion of inactive form of vitamin D to calcitrol and an increase in blood calcium (small intestine, resorption at kidneys & blood, release from bone).
• PTH and Vitamin D3 act to increase plasma Ca, whereas calcitonin decreases plasma Ca.

Calcium Deficiencies and Toxicity

• Calcium deficiencies include rickets in children and osteomalacia (osteoporosis) in adults.
• Bone growth is greatest during "linear growth" and peaks at around age 30
• Bone acts as a reservoir for calcium; this maintains blood calcium homeostasis.
• Around age 40, bone breakdown is usually greater than the amount of bone formed
• Ideally, a person would have high bone mass when it begins.
• By age 65, some women lose 50% of bone mass
• Calmodulin binds calcium, thus it can bind 4 calcium ions.
• Calcium binding activates enzymes for regulatory kinases.
• Calcium supports other bodily functions including: muscle excitation and fiber contration, nerve impulses transmission, hormones secretion, second messenger, vascular permeability, coagulation cascade.
• Increased calcium can cause cardiac arrest (contraction of myocardium of the left and right atria).
• Calcium is essential for the bulk quantity required for bone and teeth building.
• Too much calcium leads to deposition in soft tissue, impaired kidney function and also interferes with iron & zinc absorption

Phosphorus

• The body contains about 1 kg of phosphate, of which 80% is in bones and teeth and 10% in muscles.
• Phosphate is mainly an intracellular ion.
• Phosphorus is essential for the formation of bone and teeth, production of high energy phosphate compounds, synthesis of nucleoside co-enzymes such as NAD and NADP, DNA and RNA synthesis, and formation of phosphate esters.
• It also has a role in the formation of phosphoproteins, activation of enzymes by phosphorylation and phosphate buffer system in the blood at a 4:1 Na2HPO4:NaH2PO4 ratio at pH of 7.4
• Cereal, nuts, and meat are moderate source with 100mg/dl.
• Phosphorous is absorbed in the small intestine through Vitamin D-dependent active transport and simple diffusion
• Concentrations are controlled by calcitriol, PTH, calcitonin.
• Functions of phosphorus include phospholipids, component of DNA & RNA, ATP, and protein synthesis.
• It also has a role in energy metabolism, maintenance of blood pH, and forms hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH)), a naturally occurring mineral form of calcium.
• Deficiencies include rickets or osteomalacia, pica (depraved appetite), low fertility, and poor milk production or growth.

Sodium

• An essential nutrient that is often consumed in higher than needed quantities.
• The body usually eliminates excess easily.
• Sodium functions to maintain the acid-base and osmotic balance of body fluids
• The major cation of extracellular fluid, transmits nerve signals signals and facilitates the absorption of sugars and amino acids.
• High blood levels can cause risk of heart disease and high blood pressure.
• Blood levels can be affected by genetics and other factors.
• Typically, sodium and chloride are found together in foods, joining using ionic bonds to create salt.
• Sodium and Chloride are freely added to foods during processing, cooking, and at the table
• Salt free is defined as less than 5mg sodium/serving
• Very low salt is defined as less than 35mg sodium/serving.
• Low salt is less than 140mg sodium per serving
• Table salt, monosodium glutamate, highly processed foods, condiments, meats, and dairy products are major dietary sources
• Bioavailability is affected by malabsorption
• Aldosterone stimulates decreased sodium excretion in the urine.
• In low levels of sodium , adrenal glands release aldosterone.
• Aldosterone increases sodium excretion in the Kidney.
• Functions include electrolyte, fluid balance, nerve function and muscle contraction.
• Chloride is essential for HCI production, removal of carbon dioxide, and immune function.
• Sodium and chloride deficiencies are associated with diarrhea and vomiting for infants/children, and endurance sports for athletes, resulting in nausea, dizziness, muscle cramps, and coma
• Overconsumption results in increased blood pressure for susceptible individuals (elderly, African Americans, those with hypertension/chronic kidney disease).
• Chlorine has a function in HCl production and chloride salts in gastric secretion.
• Deficiencies result in metabolic alkalosis, causing the body to retain too many bicarbonate (alkaline) ions

Sulfur

• Part of amino acids like cysteine, cysteine and methionine for bioactive/structural proteins.
• Deficiency is associated with protein deficiency.

Magnesium

• The body is mainly made of intracellular fluid, with the fourth most abundant cation is magnesium.
• Diarrhea can be caused by doses above 600 mg
• More is required during lactation, thus diet should include cereals, beans, leafy vegetables and fish are major sources.
• Magnesium is the activator of many enzymes that need ATP, such as hexokinase, fructokinase, phosphofructokinase, adenyl cyclase, and cAMP dependent kinases.
• Approximately 70% of Magnesium is in the skeleton.
• Magnesium deficiency can reduce insulin-dependent glucose uptake.
• It is a cofactor for over 300 enzymes include DNA, RNA, nerve and muscle function.
• Daily intake for men should be 400 mg/day and for women 300 mg/day.
• Green leafy vegetables, seafood, legumes, nuts, dairy products, chocolate, brown rice, and whole grains are important sources of magnesium.
• Bioavailability is influenced by calcium and phosphorus levels
• Deficiencies are associated with alcoholism, abnormal muscle/nerve function, increased risk for CVD, and cardiac arrhythmias
• Hypermagnesemia is rare but can be caused by excessive intake due to antacids rectally or orally.

Potassium

• The primary dietary sources are : legumes, potatoes, seafood, meat, fruits/veg
• Absorption is in the small intestine & colon. The Kidneys regulated potassium blood levels
• Major cation inside cell, it maintains fluid balance.
• The functions for potassium include maintaing electrolyte balance, supporting muscle function, , nerve function and energy metabolism
• Deficiency of potassium is usually related to diarrhea & vomiting as well the lack of proper potassium results In hypokalemia.
• Muscle weakness, constipation, irritability, confusion, insulin resistance, irregular heart function, decreased blood pressure, difficulty breathing can occur with deficiency

Trace Elements (minerals)

• Trace elements are needed in small amounts (less than 100 mg/day) and are found in plants and animals.
• Content varies in plant foods and depends on soil quality
• Quantification can be difficult to perfom
• Bioavailability impacted by aging, genetics, nutritional status and interactions of nutrients.
• Absorption is in the small intestine.
• Environmental exposure and genetic disorders can contribute to deficiencies and toxicities that are otherwise rare.
• Cofactors, Metallo enzymes, Structures given to mineralized tissues and components of non-enzymatic particles are results of trace minerals.

Iron

• Most common nutrient deficiency in the world
• 75% is found in blood, while the rest is in liver, bone marrow and muscles
• Iron is present in almost all cells.
• Blood has 14.5 g of Hb per 100 ml with 75% of total iron is in hemoglobin, 5% in myoglobin, and 15% in ferritin
• Hemoglobin carries oxygen to cells and releases the oxygen when energy is need, like in ATP production and muscle contraction.
• Its absorption, transport, and storage is highly regulated in the body.
• Iron from animal sources is absorbed better than that of plant sources
• Vitamin C helps iron absorption through plants, in addition, calcium, copper, zinc and phosphate decrease absorptions along with phytates (grains products), polyphenols (tea, coffee)
• Gastric HCI, ascorbic acid, cysteine helps reduce Ferric ions absorption.
• The upper part of the duodenum absorbs Iron and is regulated by homeostasis Ferrous Fe2+ absorption has better absorbance, Fe3+ is not absorbed
• Mucosal block can store iron in cells.
• Iron absorbed is a one-way element, thus excreted less, the regulation of homeostasis is done at the absorption level and any type of bleeding(Mensural flow), urine and skin cells causes loss, thus body balances the homeostasis of the element
• A person should maintain the adequate the levels of iron in the body because there is the chance the deficiency will slow down the growth and lead to mental development issues
• Most abundant protein in the red blood cells, 4 group of protein and 4iron carrying heme

Iron Deficiency Anemia

• A public health concern around the world, especially for infants, children, pregnant and lactating women
• Symptoms include low hemoglobin, smaller red blood cells, cognitive problems and fatigues
• This can affect the immune system functioning and body’s ability to support a normal body temperature.
• Severe cases involve microcytic hypochromic anemia, small/pale red blood cells, issues making heme, less ability to carry oxygen and decreased ATP.
• Main causes comprise hookworm, pregnancy and bloodLoss
• Ferrous Iron ( Ferrous fumarte, Ferrous sulfate, Ferrous gluconate)is the best form of iron supplements which treat for iron deficiency anemia
• Medicinal or supplemental iron overdose and/or poison is the most cause among children and the victim may show some symptomps like Vomiting, diarrhoea, constipation, excess Iron may Deposit in the liver, heart, Muscles

Copper

• The forms of copper are cupric and cuprous
• Shellfish, whole grains and legumes are sources for it
• Avoid or be cautious when taking Iron or an antacid because they will decrease the bioavailability of copper
• The small intestine and stomach absorbs, Bile and feces excretes.
• A metalloenzyme (Integral element for cytochrome) which involves in Redox reactions as well ATP production
• The formation of hemoglobin requires copper and has to present in tyrosinase which helps with melanin formation
• Anemia, depigmentation, bone disorders is a indicator for the deficiency of the copper.
• In coordination in the muscular system and Central nervous lesions can happen as well.
• Defective connective tissue and neural problem may happen
• Toxicity is rare High levels of Molybdenum causes induced copper dificency
• Absorbtion can causes by interactions with salt
• Decreed amounts can lead Cu absorbtion accumalted in liver.

Iodine

• Essential compound element in the thyroid (T3 or T4)
• Maintained by temperature, reproduction and growth of the body
• Almost absorbed and removed in urine.
• Sources includes milk or dairy products
• Iodine deficiencies includes :
• Hypo/HyperThyroidism results in Goiters
• Cretinism : Is a condition of severely stunted physical and mental growth.
• Goiter cases come from enlarged thyroid gland due to bod’s attempt to increase thyroid hormone production.
• Thyroid absorbs after digestion or Metabolism, and Regulates uptake through the process of a stimulating hormone.

Selenium

• Functions to protect from autooxidative damage, shares functions with vitamin E, and is an important antioxidant
• Most enters blood, makes selenoproteins and is then stored in muscles and maintained by excretion
• Plays important role in reducing Glutathione
• Converts with T4-T3
• Enhances killing process for neutrophils
• A blind stagger causes a blind vision (alkali disease)
• Is supplement intake with narrow amount

Chromium (Cr)

• A dietary source of the soil, including soil foods that are whole green, fruity or meaty
• Can be used as medicines/ antacids for the bioavailability
• Is blood liver transpotered
• Too much or excess is excerted in the urine

Functions

• Regulates insulin and in animal testing, it seems to increase muscle and decrease fat
• Lacks insulin to help the decrease sensitivity, Elevated blood glucose.
• Industrial chromium is also a source of toxicity that causes lack of insulin.

Manganese (Mn)

• From grains , nuts and leafy planets
• 10 percent is absorbed
• excess is excreted in the fences

Manganese's Functions

• Supports gluconeogenesis, bone formation, energy metabolism and works as a cofactor for superoxide dismutase

Lack of Managness

• rare, but can cause scaly skin, bad bone formation, and/or growth faltering

Toxicity

• having river failure, or drinking river or water from manganese mines.

Functions of Zinc:

• Works for enzymes
• Is An antioxidants
• Protects cells
• Proteins the cells
• Znc is stored to stabilizes cells.
• A source from phyatates and iron
• Acrodermaitits and enteraothica can lead or characterized by acrodatiatits.

Flouride

• Promotes mineralization of cells with calcium and phosphate
• Decrees bad cells from bacteria Is to fight cavities

Sources:

• Potatoes, tea and fish.
• Abolrsed small intenstie
• Liver an d bones helps

Functins:

• Sitmualtes amutration of osteolbast
• Decreses Cavities

Side Notes:

• No deficiency known
• GI upset, excessive production of saliva, watery eyes, heart problems, coma ○ Dental fluorosis Skeletal fluorosis

Cobalt

• Cobalt and B12 helps with propionate metabolism
• bacterial methanol synthesis
• Essential coenzyme