220 Questions
What is the minimum percentage of glycosylated hemoglobin required for a diagnosis of diabetes?
6.5%
Which of the following is a characteristic of Type 1 diabetes?
Primary beta-cell defect or failure
What is the primary difference between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes?
Insulin resistance versus primary beta-cell defect
Which of the following is a diagnostic criterion for diabetes in individuals with classic hyperglycemic symptoms?
Random glucose levels greater than or equal to 200 mg/dl
What is the term for elevated blood glucose levels that do not meet the diagnostic criteria for diabetes?
Prediabetes
Which of the following is a manifestation of type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Fatigue and pruritus
What is a risk factor for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)?
All of the above
Which of the following is a characteristic of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketotic syndrome (HHNKS)?
Glucose > 600 mg/dl
What is the primary difference between the initial and later stages of type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Initial insulin resistance vs. later beta cell loss
Which of the following is not a diagnostic criterion for diabetes mellitus?
Pallor and sweating
What is the characteristic change in beta cells associated with autoimmune type 1 diabetes?
Specific loss of beta cells
Which of the following is NOT a manifestation of type 1 diabetes mellitus?
Weight gain
What is the underlying pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Insulin resistance with relative insulin deficiency
Which of the following is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Hypertension
What is the term for the condition characterized by pancreatic atrophy and specific loss of beta cells?
Autoimmune type 1 diabetes
What is the primary cause of hypoparathyroidism?
Thyroid surgery
What is the term for the simultaneous presence of metabolic factors that increase risk for type 2 DM?
Metabolic syndrome
Which of the following is a classification of diabetes mellitus according to the American Diabetes Association?
Type 1, Type 2, Other Specific Types, and Gestational Diabetes
What is the term for the condition characterized by abnormally low PTH levels, hypocalcemia, and hyperphosphatemia?
Hypoparathyroidism
Which of the following is a manifestation of hypoparathyroidism?
Chvostek and Trousseau signs
What is the term for the chronic excess of cortisol in the body?
Cushing syndrome
Which of the following is a complication of diabetes mellitus that affects the blood vessels?
Macrovascular disease
What is the term for the primary adrenal insufficiency that results in not enough cortisol?
Adrenocortical hypofunction
What is the term for the condition where the adrenal glands produce excessive amounts of aldosterone?
Hyperaldosteronism
Which of the following is a complication of diabetes mellitus that affects the kidneys?
Diabetic nephropathy
What is the primary function of the sodium pump in epithelial cells affected by mineralocorticoid hormones?
Sodium retention and potassium loss
Which of the following hormones is secreted by the adrenal cortex in minimal amounts?
Estrogen
What is the primary characteristic of the fight or flight response associated with catecholamines?
Hyperglycemia
What is the effect of aging on the endocrine system?
Decreased secretion and clearance of hormones
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of adrenal estrogens and androgens?
Strong androgens are secreted
What is the primary function of chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla?
Secretion of catecholamines
What is the effect of mineralocorticoid hormones on potassium levels?
Decrease potassium levels
Which of the following is a characteristic of the adrenal cortex?
Secretion of weak androgens
What is the effect of catecholamines on blood sugar levels?
Increase blood sugar levels
Which of the following is a characteristic of aging and the endocrine system?
Organ atrophy and weight loss
What is the primary function of insulin in the body?
Facilitating the rate of glucose uptake into the cells of the body
Which hormone is co-secreted with insulin and delays nutrient uptake?
Amylin
What is the primary stimulus for glucagon secretion?
Decreased blood levels of glucose
What is the role of glucocorticoid hormones in the body?
Suppressing growth and inflammation
What is the primary function of the adrenal medulla?
Responding to stress
What is the primary difference between acute and chronic gastritis?
The duration of inflammation
What is the most common cause of pyloric obstruction?
Congenital narrowing of the pyloric channel
What is the primary symptom of gastroparesis?
Nausea and vomiting
What is the term for the protrusion of the upper part of the stomach through the diaphragm and into the thorax?
Hiatal hernia
What is the term for the blocking or narrowing of the opening between the stomach and the duodenum?
Pyloric obstruction
What is the primary mechanism of osmotic diarrhea?
Malabsorption of solutes in the small intestine
What is a systemic effect of gastrointestinal dysfunction?
Electrolyte imbalance
What type of abdominal pain is usually associated with tissue injury and inflammation?
Parietal pain
What is the primary difference between upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding?
Location of bleeding
What is the primary characteristic of achalasia?
Loss of inhibitory neurons in the myenteric plexus
What is the primary effect of sympathetic nervous system stimulation on gastrointestinal motility?
Decreased gastrointestinal motility
Which of the following is a characteristic of anaerobic bacteria in the intestinal tract?
They are suppressed by bile acid and intestinal motility
What is the primary function of the liver in relation to vitamin K absorption?
Facilitation of vitamin K absorption through bile production
Which of the following is a common manifestation of gastrointestinal dysfunction in the elderly?
Dulled nerve impulses
What is the primary definition of constipation?
Infrequent or difficult defecation
What is the primary characteristic of IBS-D?
Diarrhea
What is the most likely diagnosis for Regina, a 46-year-old woman with ulcerative colitis?
Bloody and mucous stools
What is the primary characteristic of diverticulitis?
Crampy and lower left quadrant pain and low-grade fever
What is the primary difference between IBS-C and IBS-D?
IBS-C has constipation, while IBS-D has diarrhea
What is the primary characteristic of diverticulosis?
Herniations of mucosa through the muscle layers of the colon wall
What is the primary mechanism of small-volume diarrhea in patients with irritable bowel syndrome?
Excessive intestinal motility
A patient with gastrointestinal bleeding is likely to receive which antidote?
Vitamin K
What is the term for the type of abdominal pain that is characterized by a sudden onset and is typically severe?
Somatic pain
Which of the following is a systemic effect of gastrointestinal dysfunction?
All of the above
What is the primary mechanism of motility disorders in patients with Parkinson's disease?
Abnormal neuronal control of intestinal motility
What is the primary mechanism of diarrhea in ulcerative colitis?
Increased gut motility and secretion
Which of the following systemic effects is commonly associated with Crohn's disease?
All of the above
What is the primary characteristic of abdominal pain in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)?
Relieved by defecation
What is the primary cause of gastrointestinal bleeding in Crohn's disease?
Ulcerations and fissures in the intestinal wall
Which of the following motility disorders is characterized by abnormal colonic motility and sensation?
Irritable bowel syndrome
What is the primary mechanism of osmotic diarrhea in the large intestine?
Inadequate fermentation of unabsorbed carbohydrates
What is a systemic effect of gastrointestinal dysfunction on the immune system?
Increased susceptibility to infections
What type of abdominal pain is usually associated with visceral inflammation?
Visceral pain
What is the primary difference between upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding?
Blood in the stool is more common in upper GI bleeding
What is the primary mechanism of action of motilin in the small intestine?
Increased peristalsis and gastric emptying
What is the term for the condition characterized by abnormal colonic motility and increased sensitivity to food and stress?
Irritable bowel syndrome
What is the primary effect of aging on the gastrointestinal system?
Decreased gastric acid secretion
What is the primary mechanism of action of cholecystokinin in the small intestine?
Stimulation of pancreatic enzyme secretion
What is the term for the condition characterized by abnormal gut flora and impaired immune function?
Dysbiosis
What is the primary effect of gastrointestinal dysfunction on the nervous system?
Altered gut-brain axis function
What is the primary function of hepcidin in the iron cycle?
To regulate iron recycling from erythrocytes
Which of the following vitamins is essential for the synthesis of hemoglobin?
Vitamin B12
What is the primary function of granulocytes in the immune response?
To phagocytose foreign particles and bacteria
Which of the following is a characteristic of leukocyte development in the bone marrow?
Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the lymphoid organs
What is the primary mechanism of action of thrombopoietin in regulating platelet levels?
Increasing the production of platelets in the bone marrow
Which of the following is a characteristic of the immune response in newborns?
Impaired phagocytosis and delayed wound healing
What is the primary function of the fibrinolytic system in hemostasis?
To degrade fibrin clots and restore blood flow
Which of the following is a characteristic of erythrocyte development in the bone marrow?
Erythrocytes are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the circulation
What is the primary function of hemoglobin in erythrocytes?
To transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues
Which of the following is a characteristic of the inflammatory response?
Vasodilation and increased permeability
What is the primary function of albumin in plasma proteins?
To act as a carrier protein and control plasma oncotic pressure
What is the primary function of erythrocytes in the bloodstream?
To facilitate the transport of oxygen to tissues
What is the classification of leukocytes based on the presence of granules in their cytoplasm?
Agranulocytes and granulocytes
What is the primary function of granulocytes in the immune response?
To engulf and destroy foreign particles and microorganisms
Which of the following leukocytes is responsible for ingesting antigen-antibody complexes?
Eosinophils
What is the primary function of platelets in the bloodstream?
To promote blood coagulation and control bleeding
What is the term for the process by which old or senescent erythrocytes are removed from the circulation?
Phagocytosis
What is the primary function of the spleen in the hematologic system?
To filter the blood and remove old or damaged cells
What is the primary function of lymphocytes in the immune response?
To produce antibodies and participate in cell-mediated immunity
What is the term for the condition characterized by an increase in red blood cell production in response to tissue hypoxia?
Erythropoiesis
What is the primary consequence of not treating MRSA infections quickly?
Sepsis and death
What is the primary mode of transmission of Clostridium difficile?
Contact transmission through feces
What is the primary result of a failure of the body's defense mechanisms in bacterial infections?
Septicemia
What is the primary step in viral replication that requires a permissive host cell?
Replication
What is the primary characteristic of influenza that makes it highly contagious?
Ability to spread before symptom onset
What is the primary characteristic of chronic inflammation?
Often related to an unsuccessful acute inflammatory response
What is the term for the invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in body tissues?
Infection
What is the primary cause of chronic inflammation?
High lipid and wax content of a microorganism
What is the term for the exudate that contains blood?
Hemorrhagic exudate
What is the primary systemic manifestation of acute inflammation?
Leukocytosis
What is the term for the rapid spread of infectious disease to a large number of people in a given population within a short period of time?
Epidemic infection
What is the result of B lymphocytes being activated during an immune response to bacterial invasion?
Production of antibodies
What is the term for an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread through human populations across a large region?
Pandemic infection
What is the result of T lymphocytes being activated during an immune response to bacterial invasion?
Phagocytosis
Which of the following populations is at greatest risk for infections?
All individuals, regardless of age, gender, race, and socioeconomic status
What is the primary function of adaptive immunity?
Long-term, highly effective protection against future exposure to the same microorganism
What is the term for the condition characterized by an exaggerated immune response?
Hypersensitivity
What is the primary function of T helper lymphocytes?
Facilitation of antigen-driven maturation of B and T cells
What is the primary characteristic of Staphylococcus aureus that makes it a major cause of nosocomial infection?
Its ability to produce biofilms
What is the dominant immunoglobulin found in the secretory immune system?
IgA
What is the primary characteristic of immunologically immature individuals at birth?
Deficiencies in antibody production and phagocytic activity
What is the primary factor that influences the virulence of a bacterial pathogen?
Its ability to invade and multiply in the host
What is the primary mechanism of viral replication in host cells?
Replication of viral genome using host cell machinery
What is the primary route of transmission of MRSA infections?
Direct contact with an infected individual
What is the primary characteristic of influenza that allows it to spread easily?
Its high communicability through aerosol transmission
What is the primary goal of the immune system's response to microorganisms?
To eliminate the microorganisms from the body
Which of the following laboratory tests is used to detect specific antibodies or viruses?
Serological tests
What is the primary function of immunoglobulins in the immune system?
To recognize and bind to specific antigens
What is the primary difference between a normal immune response and an inadequate immune response?
The effectiveness of the immune response
Which of the following radiographic studies is used to visualize the colon?
Colonoscopy
What is the primary function of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) test?
To measure the rate of inflammation in the body
What is the primary purpose of genetic testing in immunology?
To detect genetic mutations associated with immune disorders
What is the primary difference between an allergen and an antigen?
The type of immune response triggered
What is the primary function of rheumatoid factors (RFs) in the immune system?
To detect the presence of autoantibodies in the blood
What is the primary purpose of allergy testing in immunology?
To diagnose allergic disorders
What is the primary transmission of COVID-19?
From person to person through respiratory droplets
Which of the following is a characteristic of fungal infections?
They are usually controlled by phagocytes and T lymphocytes
What is the estimated incubation period of COVID-19?
2 to 14 days
Which of the following is a complication of COVID-19?
Pneumonia
What is the name of the virus that causes COVID-19?
SARS-CoV-2
What is the primary mechanism by which endometrial tissue is thought to be implanted outside the uterus in endometriosis?
Retrograde menstruation
Which symptom is highly associated with endometriosis?
Dyschezia
What is the primary effect of endometriosis on fertility?
Decreased fertility
What is the primary goal of treatment for endometriosis?
To prevent progression and alleviate symptoms
What is the characteristic of endometrial tissue in endometriosis that responds to hormonal fluctuations?
Functioning
What is the primary function of the urinary system in terms of acid-base regulation?
Regulating pH levels through electrolyte balance
Which of the following is a potential clinical manifestation of impaired kidney function?
Encephalopathy
What is the relationship between the urinary system and red blood cell synthesis?
The kidneys produce erythropoietin to stimulate RBC production
What is the primary mechanism by which the urinary system regulates blood pressure?
Through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
What is the consequence of impaired kidney function on the reproductive system?
Alterations in reproductive system function
What is the primary consequence of urinary incontinence?
Skin breakdown
Which type of urinary incontinence is caused by a patient's inability to ambulate to the bathroom?
Functional incontinence
What is a risk factor for urinary incontinence?
Vaginal deliveries
What is the primary mechanism of Chlamydia-induced damage in the fallopian tubes?
Chlamydial replication and cellular lysis
What percentage of women over 65 report urinary incontinence?
45%
What is the most common symptom of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)?
Vague symptoms
Which of the following is not a type of urinary incontinence?
Pelvic prolapse
What is the primary consequence of untreated Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)?
All of the above
What is the primary site of infection in Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)?
Upper genital tract
What is the primary factor that increases the risk of developing Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)?
All of the above
What is the primary cause of pyelonephritis in pregnant women?
Urinary stasis
Which of the following is a common cause of pyelonephritis?
Escherichia coli
What is the primary factor that increases the risk of pyelonephritis in women?
Sexual activity
What is the primary complication of pyelonephritis?
Abscesses on the kidneys
What is the primary population affected by pyelonephritis?
Young women who are sexually active
What is the primary purpose of a bladder scan in the assessment of urinary incontinence?
To measure the volume of urine in the bladder
Which of the following is a common manifestation of cystitis?
Lower abdominal and/or suprapubic pain
What is the most common pathogen causing Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs)?
Escherichia coli
Which of the following is a possible consequence of urinary incontinence?
Altered tissue integrity
What is the purpose of a comprehensive physical examination in the assessment of urinary incontinence?
To assess the patient's overall health and detect any underlying conditions
Which of the following is an important aspect of the laboratory assessment of urinary incontinence?
Urinalysis
What is the primary purpose of urodynamic testing in the assessment of urinary incontinence?
To assess the function of the bladder and urethra
Which of the following is a possible cause of cystitis?
Irritants
What is the primary purpose of EMG of pelvic muscles in the assessment of urinary incontinence?
To assess the function of the pelvic muscles
Which of the following is a common risk factor for Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs)?
Sex
What is the consequence of urinary retention in the upper urinary tract?
Dilation of the ureters and renal pelvis
What is the factor that determines the severity of urinary tract obstruction?
Location of the obstruction
What is the effect of aging on renal function?
Decrease in renal blood flow and GFR
What is the term for the accumulation of urine in the ureter?
Hydroureter
What is the consequence of urinary tract obstruction on the kidneys?
Pyelonephritis and renal atrophy
Which of these is a known risk factor for breast cancer in women treated for a pediatric or young adult cancer?
Chest radiation
What is the association between obesity and breast cancer?
Obesity increases cancer risk from cellular pathways involving hormonal regulation and immunity
What is the effect of physical activity on breast cancer risk?
Physical activity reduces the overall risk of breast cancer
What is the effect of xenoestrogens on breast cancer risk?
Xenoestrogens mimic the actions of estrogens and may contribute to breast cancer
What is the association between alcohol intake and breast cancer risk?
Alcohol intake is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer
What is the effect of being overweight on breast cancer risk?
Being overweight is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer
What is the primary characteristic of well-differentiated cancer cells?
They have a low mitotic index
What is the term for the early stage of cancer where the tumor has not broken through the basement membrane or invaded the surrounding stroma?
Carcinoma in situ
What is the primary reason for the bimodal distribution of cancer incidence in children and adolescents?
Often diagnosed during peak growth periods
Which of the following is a hallmark of cancer?
Angiogenesis
What is the survival rate for children diagnosed with cancer?
More than 80%
What is the primary difference between benign and malignant tumors?
Benign tumors are encapsulated, while malignant tumors are not
Which of the following hormonal factors is associated with a decreased risk of breast cancer?
Early first pregnancy
Which of the following is a characteristic of cancer cells?
They have a high mitotic index and are poorly differentiated
What is the risk of secondary cancers in children who have been treated for cancer?
Increased risk later in life
Which of the following is a characteristic of embryonal tumors in children?
They are often diagnosed early in life
What is the primary consequence of genomic instability in cancer cells?
Acquisition of characteristics that give them a selective advantage
What is the effect of ionizing radiation on the risk of childhood cancer?
It increases the risk of cancer
What is the primary type of cancer that is most common in children?
Leukemia
Which of the following is a risk factor for developing breast cancer?
Physical inactivity
What is the stage of cancer that has metastasized to the bone?
Stage 4
Which of the following hormonal influences is associated with an increased risk of cancer?
Estrogen
What is the benefit of controlling bacterial infection from Helicobacter pylori in terms of cancer risk?
Decreased risk of stomach cancer
Which of the following is a characteristic of childhood cancer?
The most common type of cancer is leukemia
Which virus is responsible for approximately 75% of all stomach cancers?
Epstein-Barr virus
What is the primary purpose of the HPV vaccine?
To reduce the risk of cervical cancer
Which type of cancer is most commonly associated with HPV infection?
Cervical cancer
What is the name of the test used for screening for cervical cancer?
Pap smear
Which of the following is an example of a chemical hazard associated with cancer?
Asbestos
What is the primary route of transmission for HPV?
Horizontal transmission through skin-to-skin contact
Which of the following is a consequence of HPV infection?
Increased risk of cervical cancer
What is the purpose of occupational hazard controls in the workplace?
To reduce the risk of cancer from chemical exposures
Which of the following is a type of cancer associated with HPV infection?
Oropharyngeal cancer
What is the primary purpose of screening tests for cancer?
To detect cancer at an early stage when it is more treatable
Which of the following genetic factors is associated with an increased risk of developing childhood leukemia?
Chromosomal translocations involving the MLL gene
What is the primary factor that influences the prognosis of cancer patients?
Tumor stage at diagnosis
Which of the following is a modifiable risk factor for breast cancer?
Physical inactivity and obesity
Hormonal influences on cancer can occur through which of the following mechanisms?
Modulation of gene expression through hormone receptors
What is a common side effect of chemotherapy in cancer treatment?
All of the above
Which of the following is a potential long-term side effect of radiation therapy in cancer treatment?
Secondary malignancies
Test your knowledge on the diagnosis of diabetes, including the symptoms, laboratory tests, and criteria for diagnosing diabetes. Learn about the role of glycosylated hemoglobin, fasting plasma glucose, and oral glucose tolerance testing in diagnosing diabetes.
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