Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the concept of a 'critical period' in development?
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the concept of a 'critical period' in development?
- An adult recovering motor skills after a stroke through intensive physical therapy.
- A child who learns to play a musical instrument proficiently after years of practice.
- A teenager learning a new language with the same ease as a child.
- A young child acquiring their first language effortlessly compared to learning a second language later in life. (correct)
According to Hess's imprinting research, what two factors significantly influence the imprinting process in young animals?
According to Hess's imprinting research, what two factors significantly influence the imprinting process in young animals?
- Species and diet
- Size and color
- Gender and weight
- Age and distance (correct)
What is a primary limitation of observational studies when researching child development?
What is a primary limitation of observational studies when researching child development?
- They give key naturalistic information, but are hard to code objectively and reliably. (correct)
- They provide easy and reliable coding of behaviors.
- They reduce experimenter bias.
- They offer detailed experimental control.
Active experience is considered more beneficial for development than passive experience because:
Active experience is considered more beneficial for development than passive experience because:
Which research method would be most suitable for investigating the neural correlates of decision-making processes in adolescents?
Which research method would be most suitable for investigating the neural correlates of decision-making processes in adolescents?
Which statement best reflects the neuro-constructivist approach to developmental psychology?
Which statement best reflects the neuro-constructivist approach to developmental psychology?
Monozygotic (MZ) twins are valuable in developmental studies because:
Monozygotic (MZ) twins are valuable in developmental studies because:
What is the primary advantage of studying monozygotic twins raised apart in the context of the nature versus nurture debate?
What is the primary advantage of studying monozygotic twins raised apart in the context of the nature versus nurture debate?
The Twins Early Development Study (TEDS) primarily aims to:
The Twins Early Development Study (TEDS) primarily aims to:
According to Karmiloff-Smith, what is a key consideration when interpreting the results of twin studies?
According to Karmiloff-Smith, what is a key consideration when interpreting the results of twin studies?
What type of study would be MOST suitable to examine the impact of a specific educational program on reading ability, while accounting for genetic factors:
What type of study would be MOST suitable to examine the impact of a specific educational program on reading ability, while accounting for genetic factors:
Which research design is best suited to isolate environmental influences on child development, minimizing genetic confounds?
Which research design is best suited to isolate environmental influences on child development, minimizing genetic confounds?
A researcher aims to investigate the heritability of a specific personality trait. Which of the following comparisons would provide the STRONGEST evidence for heritability?
A researcher aims to investigate the heritability of a specific personality trait. Which of the following comparisons would provide the STRONGEST evidence for heritability?
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is best described as the:
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is best described as the:
What is the primary role of 'scaffolding' in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development?
What is the primary role of 'scaffolding' in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development?
A child is able to sort objects by color but struggles to sort them by shape. According to Vygotsky's theory, shape sorting is:
A child is able to sort objects by color but struggles to sort them by shape. According to Vygotsky's theory, shape sorting is:
According to the information, what characterizes cognitive development in the sensorimotor stage?
According to the information, what characterizes cognitive development in the sensorimotor stage?
What is the MOST accurate depiction of cognitive development, based on the information?
What is the MOST accurate depiction of cognitive development, based on the information?
According to Piaget's theory, what is the primary driving force behind cognitive development in children?
According to Piaget's theory, what is the primary driving force behind cognitive development in children?
In Piaget's theory, what is the relationship between assimilation and accommodation in the process of cognitive development?
In Piaget's theory, what is the relationship between assimilation and accommodation in the process of cognitive development?
According to Piaget, a child in the sensorimotor stage primarily learns about the world through:
According to Piaget, a child in the sensorimotor stage primarily learns about the world through:
A child consistently searches for a toy hidden under a blanket but gives up when the toy is hidden in a different location, even though they saw it being moved. According to Piaget, this behavior is indicative of:
A child consistently searches for a toy hidden under a blanket but gives up when the toy is hidden in a different location, even though they saw it being moved. According to Piaget, this behavior is indicative of:
What is the significance of 'equilibration' in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?
What is the significance of 'equilibration' in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?
According to Piaget, what is a 'schema' and how does it contribute to cognitive development?
According to Piaget, what is a 'schema' and how does it contribute to cognitive development?
A child encounters a new type of fruit they've never seen before. They initially try to relate it to a familiar fruit, like an apple, by calling it a 'funny apple'. According to Piaget, this is an example of:
A child encounters a new type of fruit they've never seen before. They initially try to relate it to a familiar fruit, like an apple, by calling it a 'funny apple'. According to Piaget, this is an example of:
Which of the following best exemplifies the concept of object permanence as understood in Piaget's sensorimotor stage?
Which of the following best exemplifies the concept of object permanence as understood in Piaget's sensorimotor stage?
A child consistently searches for a hidden toy in location 'A' even after observing it being moved to location 'B'. Which of Piaget's concepts does this behavior exemplify?
A child consistently searches for a hidden toy in location 'A' even after observing it being moved to location 'B'. Which of Piaget's concepts does this behavior exemplify?
What cognitive milestone marks the transition from the sensorimotor stage to the preoperational stage, according to Piaget?
What cognitive milestone marks the transition from the sensorimotor stage to the preoperational stage, according to Piaget?
During the preoperational stage, a child engages in make-believe play, using a banana as a telephone. This behavior primarily demonstrates:
During the preoperational stage, a child engages in make-believe play, using a banana as a telephone. This behavior primarily demonstrates:
A child in the preoperational stage is shown a diorama with a doll placed on the opposite side. When asked what the doll sees, the child describes their own view. This demonstrates:
A child in the preoperational stage is shown a diorama with a doll placed on the opposite side. When asked what the doll sees, the child describes their own view. This demonstrates:
Which of the following is a key characteristic of preoperational children's performance on conservation tasks?
Which of the following is a key characteristic of preoperational children's performance on conservation tasks?
A child is shown a set of beads, most of which are brown, with a few white ones. When asked, 'Are there more beads or more brown beads?' the child answers, 'More brown beads.' This demonstrates difficulty with:
A child is shown a set of beads, most of which are brown, with a few white ones. When asked, 'Are there more beads or more brown beads?' the child answers, 'More brown beads.' This demonstrates difficulty with:
Which cognitive ability develops during the concrete operational stage, enabling children to understand that the amount of liquid remains the same even when poured into a different shaped container?
Which cognitive ability develops during the concrete operational stage, enabling children to understand that the amount of liquid remains the same even when poured into a different shaped container?
A child is able to arrange sticks in order from shortest to longest. According to Piaget, this child is demonstrating the ability of:
A child is able to arrange sticks in order from shortest to longest. According to Piaget, this child is demonstrating the ability of:
Which skill characterizes the concrete operational stage, allowing children to infer that if A > B and B > C, then A > C?
Which skill characterizes the concrete operational stage, allowing children to infer that if A > B and B > C, then A > C?
What type of reasoning is characteristic of Piaget's formal operational stage?
What type of reasoning is characteristic of Piaget's formal operational stage?
A child who understands conservation of number but not volume presents a challenge to Piaget's original concept of stages because it suggests:
A child who understands conservation of number but not volume presents a challenge to Piaget's original concept of stages because it suggests:
In conservation tasks, children may provide different answers if a teddy bear, rather than the experimenter, manipulates the materials. This finding primarily challenges which aspect of Piaget’s methodology?
In conservation tasks, children may provide different answers if a teddy bear, rather than the experimenter, manipulates the materials. This finding primarily challenges which aspect of Piaget’s methodology?
When preoperational children are asked 'Are there more black cows or more sleeping cows?' and accurately respond 'sleeping cows,' this challenges Piaget's original conclusions about class inclusion due to:
When preoperational children are asked 'Are there more black cows or more sleeping cows?' and accurately respond 'sleeping cows,' this challenges Piaget's original conclusions about class inclusion due to:
Bryant and Trabasso's (1971) research suggested that children's difficulty with transitive inference tasks (e.g., A>B, B>C, therefore A>C) may be primarily due to limitations in:
Bryant and Trabasso's (1971) research suggested that children's difficulty with transitive inference tasks (e.g., A>B, B>C, therefore A>C) may be primarily due to limitations in:
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory posits that cognitive development is LEAST influenced by what factor?
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory posits that cognitive development is LEAST influenced by what factor?
If an infant demonstrates an understanding that a rolling ball will continue its motion even when briefly hidden behind a box, which theoretical perspective would best explain this understanding as innate?
If an infant demonstrates an understanding that a rolling ball will continue its motion even when briefly hidden behind a box, which theoretical perspective would best explain this understanding as innate?
A researcher observes a child systematically experimenting with different ways to stack blocks, seemingly to discover the limits of balance and stability. Which perspective would view this behavior as the child actively testing hypotheses about the world?
A researcher observes a child systematically experimenting with different ways to stack blocks, seemingly to discover the limits of balance and stability. Which perspective would view this behavior as the child actively testing hypotheses about the world?
When comparing Spelke's and Gopnik's perspectives on infant cognition, which statement BEST captures a key difference in their views on the nature of learning?
When comparing Spelke's and Gopnik's perspectives on infant cognition, which statement BEST captures a key difference in their views on the nature of learning?
A developmental psychologist is designing an experiment to test whether infants’ understanding of object permanence is innate or learned. Which approach aligns more with Gopnik's perspective than Spelke's?
A developmental psychologist is designing an experiment to test whether infants’ understanding of object permanence is innate or learned. Which approach aligns more with Gopnik's perspective than Spelke's?
Imagine a study where researchers teach infants a new symbol that represents a hidden object. According to the theories, which infant behavior is most likely based on consolidation/enrichement of the starting position?
Imagine a study where researchers teach infants a new symbol that represents a hidden object. According to the theories, which infant behavior is most likely based on consolidation/enrichement of the starting position?
In Vygotsky's theory, what is the role of cultural tools in cognitive development?
In Vygotsky's theory, what is the role of cultural tools in cognitive development?
According to Vygotsky, how does social interaction influence cognitive development?
According to Vygotsky, how does social interaction influence cognitive development?
What is the significance of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in Vygotsky's theory?
What is the significance of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in Vygotsky's theory?
What is the primary purpose of scaffolding in the context of Vygotsky's theory?
What is the primary purpose of scaffolding in the context of Vygotsky's theory?
Kellman and Spelke's research using habituation techniques with infants challenged Piaget's view on object permanence by suggesting that:
Kellman and Spelke's research using habituation techniques with infants challenged Piaget's view on object permanence by suggesting that:
In the Kellman and Spelke (1983) experiment, what did the infants' dishabituation to a broken rod (compared to an intact rod) indicate?
In the Kellman and Spelke (1983) experiment, what did the infants' dishabituation to a broken rod (compared to an intact rod) indicate?
How do Kellman and Spelke's findings about infant perception of objects contribute to the broader understanding of cognitive development?
How do Kellman and Spelke's findings about infant perception of objects contribute to the broader understanding of cognitive development?
How might a Vygotskian theorist critique the methodology used in the Kellman and Spelke experiments on infant object perception?
How might a Vygotskian theorist critique the methodology used in the Kellman and Spelke experiments on infant object perception?
According to Spelke's theory of core knowledge, how does learning primarily occur?
According to Spelke's theory of core knowledge, how does learning primarily occur?
In Baillargeon's (1985) violation-of-expectation studies, what is the key dependent variable used to assess infants' understanding of object permanence?
In Baillargeon's (1985) violation-of-expectation studies, what is the key dependent variable used to assess infants' understanding of object permanence?
A researcher replicates Baillargeon's drawbridge study but finds infants look longer at the possible event. Which of the following explanations is MOST plausible, based on the provided text?
A researcher replicates Baillargeon's drawbridge study but finds infants look longer at the possible event. Which of the following explanations is MOST plausible, based on the provided text?
In Xu & Spelke's (2000) study on number discrimination, why was it important to vary the size and layout of the dots during the habituation phase?
In Xu & Spelke's (2000) study on number discrimination, why was it important to vary the size and layout of the dots during the habituation phase?
Mix, Huttenlocher, & Devine's (2002) critique of number discrimination studies suggests infants may be responding to 'contour length.' What does 'contour length' refer to in this context?
Mix, Huttenlocher, & Devine's (2002) critique of number discrimination studies suggests infants may be responding to 'contour length.' What does 'contour length' refer to in this context?
Feigenson (2005) found that infants compute number when objects differ in color, pattern, and texture, but compute continuous extent when objects are identical. What does this imply about infants' processing of numerical information?
Feigenson (2005) found that infants compute number when objects differ in color, pattern, and texture, but compute continuous extent when objects are identical. What does this imply about infants' processing of numerical information?
In Hermer & Spelke's (1994) 'Blue Wall' study, why were children's search errors at geometrically equivalent corners considered significant?
In Hermer & Spelke's (1994) 'Blue Wall' study, why were children's search errors at geometrically equivalent corners considered significant?
Cheng & Newcombe (2005) criticized the 'Blue Wall' study, arguing that the room was too small. Why is room size a critical factor in assessing children's spatial reorientation abilities?
Cheng & Newcombe (2005) criticized the 'Blue Wall' study, arguing that the room was too small. Why is room size a critical factor in assessing children's spatial reorientation abilities?
Gopnik argues that young infants think like scientists. How does this perspective contrast with Piaget's view of cognitive development in infancy?
Gopnik argues that young infants think like scientists. How does this perspective contrast with Piaget's view of cognitive development in infancy?
In Xu & Garcia's (2008) study, 8-month-olds looked longer at the unexpected display of ping pong balls drawn from a box. What cognitive ability does this behavior suggest?
In Xu & Garcia's (2008) study, 8-month-olds looked longer at the unexpected display of ping pong balls drawn from a box. What cognitive ability does this behavior suggest?
In Gopnik & Sobel's (2000) 'blicket detector' study, what were the children primarily demonstrating when they chose the object with the same causal powers as the 'blicket'?
In Gopnik & Sobel's (2000) 'blicket detector' study, what were the children primarily demonstrating when they chose the object with the same causal powers as the 'blicket'?
According to Spelke's theory, which of the following is NOT a core domain of knowledge present in infancy?
According to Spelke's theory, which of the following is NOT a core domain of knowledge present in infancy?
What is a primary methodological concern when using the violation-of-expectation paradigm in infancy research?
What is a primary methodological concern when using the violation-of-expectation paradigm in infancy research?
In the context of Spelke's work on spatial reasoning, what does it mean for the geometric module to be 'impervious to color information'?
In the context of Spelke's work on spatial reasoning, what does it mean for the geometric module to be 'impervious to color information'?
A researcher aims to investigate the core knowledge of object representation in 3-month-old infants. Which experimental paradigm would be most appropriate to use, based on the information provided?
A researcher aims to investigate the core knowledge of object representation in 3-month-old infants. Which experimental paradigm would be most appropriate to use, based on the information provided?
Which neuroimaging technique offers the highest temporal resolution for studying neural activity in infants?
Which neuroimaging technique offers the highest temporal resolution for studying neural activity in infants?
Why is fMRI often challenging to use with infants and young children?
Why is fMRI often challenging to use with infants and young children?
Which statement best describes the trade-off researchers face when using NIRS to study brain activity?
Which statement best describes the trade-off researchers face when using NIRS to study brain activity?
How does the cloth-pulling task assess executive function in infants?
How does the cloth-pulling task assess executive function in infants?
In the Tower of Hanoi task, what cognitive abilities are primarily being assessed?
In the Tower of Hanoi task, what cognitive abilities are primarily being assessed?
Which brain region is most strongly associated with executive functions such as planning, problem-solving, and inhibitory control?
Which brain region is most strongly associated with executive functions such as planning, problem-solving, and inhibitory control?
According to Baddeley & Hitch's model, what is the role of the 'central executive' in cognition?
According to Baddeley & Hitch's model, what is the role of the 'central executive' in cognition?
What structural changes occur in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during childhood and adolescence?
What structural changes occur in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during childhood and adolescence?
What does the A-not-B error typically demonstrate about an infant's cognitive abilities?
What does the A-not-B error typically demonstrate about an infant's cognitive abilities?
According to Diamond's research with monkeys, what effect do lesions of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) have on performance in the A-not-B task?
According to Diamond's research with monkeys, what effect do lesions of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) have on performance in the A-not-B task?
In the context of brain activity and the A-not-B task, what did Bell & Fox's EEG study reveal about infants who succeed on the task after a delay?
In the context of brain activity and the A-not-B task, what did Bell & Fox's EEG study reveal about infants who succeed on the task after a delay?
In the dimension card change sort task, why do 3-year-olds typically fail to switch sorting rules despite knowing the new rule?
In the dimension card change sort task, why do 3-year-olds typically fail to switch sorting rules despite knowing the new rule?
What does success on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task typically indicate about an individual's cognitive abilities?
What does success on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task typically indicate about an individual's cognitive abilities?
How did Moriguchi et al.'s (2009) study, using NIRS and a card sorting task, provide direct evidence linking PFC function to executive function development?
How did Moriguchi et al.'s (2009) study, using NIRS and a card sorting task, provide direct evidence linking PFC function to executive function development?
Which of the following tasks is commonly used to assess inhibitory control in children, without requiring literacy skills?
Which of the following tasks is commonly used to assess inhibitory control in children, without requiring literacy skills?
What does the Stop-signal task primarily measure?
What does the Stop-signal task primarily measure?
In a Go/No-Go task, what cognitive process is being assessed when a participant must inhibit a prepared response?
In a Go/No-Go task, what cognitive process is being assessed when a participant must inhibit a prepared response?
In Johnstone, Barry, and Clarke's (2007) study on the development of inhibitory control, what key finding highlights the importance of examining neural mechanisms alongside behavioral measures?
In Johnstone, Barry, and Clarke's (2007) study on the development of inhibitory control, what key finding highlights the importance of examining neural mechanisms alongside behavioral measures?
During which period of development does myelination in the frontal lobes occur?
During which period of development does myelination in the frontal lobes occur?
Why is it important to consider both behavioral developments and neural activity when studying executive functions in children?
Why is it important to consider both behavioral developments and neural activity when studying executive functions in children?
If a researcher is interested in examining the development of planning skills in children, which task would be most suitable?
If a researcher is interested in examining the development of planning skills in children, which task would be most suitable?
If a researcher wants to study changes in brain activity related to attention shifting in children, which neuroimaging method would provide the best temporal resolution?
If a researcher wants to study changes in brain activity related to attention shifting in children, which neuroimaging method would provide the best temporal resolution?
Researchers find that increased myelination in the prefrontal cortex correlates with improved performance on tasks requiring inhibitory control. What does this suggest about the relationship between brain development and executive function?
Researchers find that increased myelination in the prefrontal cortex correlates with improved performance on tasks requiring inhibitory control. What does this suggest about the relationship between brain development and executive function?
A researcher observes that an adolescent consistently makes risky decisions despite understanding the potential consequences. Which area of neural development might be implicated in this behavior?
A researcher observes that an adolescent consistently makes risky decisions despite understanding the potential consequences. Which area of neural development might be implicated in this behavior?
Which type of study would be MOST suitable to examine the claim that infant's performance on the A-not-B task relies exclusively on prefrontal cortex?
Which type of study would be MOST suitable to examine the claim that infant's performance on the A-not-B task relies exclusively on prefrontal cortex?
What is the primary purpose of using Visual Evoked Potentials (VEPs) in developmental studies of perception?
What is the primary purpose of using Visual Evoked Potentials (VEPs) in developmental studies of perception?
According to Braddick (1993), at what age does cortical processing of orientation changes in visual stimuli begin to develop in infants?
According to Braddick (1993), at what age does cortical processing of orientation changes in visual stimuli begin to develop in infants?
According to Wattam-Bell (1991), at what age do infants typically begin to show brain activity specifically in response to changes in the direction of motion at low speeds?
According to Wattam-Bell (1991), at what age do infants typically begin to show brain activity specifically in response to changes in the direction of motion at low speeds?
What did Cynader, Berman, and Hein's (1973) research on kittens raised in stroboscopic illumination demonstrate?
What did Cynader, Berman, and Hein's (1973) research on kittens raised in stroboscopic illumination demonstrate?
According to Yonas et al. (1977), at what age do infants begin to reliably exhibit a blinking response to objects looming towards them?
According to Yonas et al. (1977), at what age do infants begin to reliably exhibit a blinking response to objects looming towards them?
In Orioli et al.'s (2018) preferential looking study on looming perception, what was a key finding regarding infants' attention to approaching and colliding objects?
In Orioli et al.'s (2018) preferential looking study on looming perception, what was a key finding regarding infants' attention to approaching and colliding objects?
What was the primary question Gibson and Walk (1960) aimed to investigate using the visual cliff apparatus?
What was the primary question Gibson and Walk (1960) aimed to investigate using the visual cliff apparatus?
What is stereopsis?
What is stereopsis?
According to Braddick and Atkinson (1983), at approximately what age do infants begin to demonstrate responses indicative of stereopsis?
According to Braddick and Atkinson (1983), at approximately what age do infants begin to demonstrate responses indicative of stereopsis?
According to traditional views of motor development, how was the progression of motor skills typically characterized?
According to traditional views of motor development, how was the progression of motor skills typically characterized?
What is a key feature of the 'dynamic systems' view of motor development?
What is a key feature of the 'dynamic systems' view of motor development?
According to contemporary research on motor development, what best describes the nature of individual differences in the acquisition of motor skills?
According to contemporary research on motor development, what best describes the nature of individual differences in the acquisition of motor skills?
Which of the following cultural practices has been observed to support early sitting skills in infants?
Which of the following cultural practices has been observed to support early sitting skills in infants?
According to research by Adolph (2005, 2012), approximately how many steps do infants take per day, highlighting the significance of experience in motor development?
According to research by Adolph (2005, 2012), approximately how many steps do infants take per day, highlighting the significance of experience in motor development?
What did Adolph's (1995) research on infants walking down slopes demonstrate regarding the primary determinant of this motor skill?
What did Adolph's (1995) research on infants walking down slopes demonstrate regarding the primary determinant of this motor skill?
According to Berthenthal, Campos, and Barrett (1984), what role does crawling experience play in infants' avoidance of the visual cliff?
According to Berthenthal, Campos, and Barrett (1984), what role does crawling experience play in infants' avoidance of the visual cliff?
What did Thelen, Fisher, and Ridley-Johnson (1984) demonstrate regarding the stepping reflex in infants?
What did Thelen, Fisher, and Ridley-Johnson (1984) demonstrate regarding the stepping reflex in infants?
In Thelen, Fisher, and Ridley-Johnson's (1984) study, how did adding weights to infants' legs affect the stepping reflex?
In Thelen, Fisher, and Ridley-Johnson's (1984) study, how did adding weights to infants' legs affect the stepping reflex?
According to the research discussed, what is a key factor influencing an infant's ability to successfully navigate motor challenges such as walking down slopes or avoiding the visual cliff?
According to the research discussed, what is a key factor influencing an infant's ability to successfully navigate motor challenges such as walking down slopes or avoiding the visual cliff?
What is the primary method used to study orientation perception in infants?
What is the primary method used to study orientation perception in infants?
What ethical concern is raised regarding the 'visual cliff' experiment?
What ethical concern is raised regarding the 'visual cliff' experiment?
What accounts for the improvement of stereoacuity in infants within weeks of onset, as suggested by Birch, Gwiazda & Held (1982)?
What accounts for the improvement of stereoacuity in infants within weeks of onset, as suggested by Birch, Gwiazda & Held (1982)?
Which of the following best explains why the stepping reflex, observed in early infancy, diminishes around 8 weeks of age, according to traditional understandings?
Which of the following best explains why the stepping reflex, observed in early infancy, diminishes around 8 weeks of age, according to traditional understandings?
An infant is placed in shallow water, and their stepping reflex is observed to increase. Which concept best explains this situation?
An infant is placed in shallow water, and their stepping reflex is observed to increase. Which concept best explains this situation?
Based on Adolph and Berger's (2006) work, if a 10-month-old infant has skipped crawling entirely and is now pulling themselves up to stand, how should their motor development be characterized?
Based on Adolph and Berger's (2006) work, if a 10-month-old infant has skipped crawling entirely and is now pulling themselves up to stand, how should their motor development be characterized?
According to Bowlby's early attachment theory (1958), what is the primary function of an infant's 'social releaser' behaviors?
According to Bowlby's early attachment theory (1958), what is the primary function of an infant's 'social releaser' behaviors?
What did Bowlby initially propose regarding 'monotropy' in attachment?
What did Bowlby initially propose regarding 'monotropy' in attachment?
According to Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis, what is a potential long-term consequence of breaking the infant-caregiver bond during the first five years of life?
According to Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis, what is a potential long-term consequence of breaking the infant-caregiver bond during the first five years of life?
Which of Bowlby's attachment stages is characterized by an infant increasingly orienting to and seeking comfort from a primary caregiver?
Which of Bowlby's attachment stages is characterized by an infant increasingly orienting to and seeking comfort from a primary caregiver?
What is the primary function of the 'internal working model' in Bowlby's attachment theory?
What is the primary function of the 'internal working model' in Bowlby's attachment theory?
How did Harlow's research with primates challenge traditional views of infant attachment?
How did Harlow's research with primates challenge traditional views of infant attachment?
How did Ainsworth's cross-cultural research influence Bowlby's attachment theory?
How did Ainsworth's cross-cultural research influence Bowlby's attachment theory?
What is the primary purpose of the 'Strange Situation' procedure?
What is the primary purpose of the 'Strange Situation' procedure?
In the Strange Situation, what behavior is characteristic of a securely attached (Type B) infant upon the mother's return?
In the Strange Situation, what behavior is characteristic of a securely attached (Type B) infant upon the mother's return?
Which behavioral pattern is most indicative of an insecure-avoidant (Type A) attachment style in the Strange Situation?
Which behavioral pattern is most indicative of an insecure-avoidant (Type A) attachment style in the Strange Situation?
What might inconsistent maternal responses contribute to, according to attachment theory?
What might inconsistent maternal responses contribute to, according to attachment theory?
Which attachment style, identified by Main & Solomon (1986), is characterized by contradictory behaviors and a lack of a consistent strategy for seeking comfort from the caregiver?
Which attachment style, identified by Main & Solomon (1986), is characterized by contradictory behaviors and a lack of a consistent strategy for seeking comfort from the caregiver?
According to research using the Strange Situation, what is the approximate contribution of genetics to explaining individual differences in attachment styles?
According to research using the Strange Situation, what is the approximate contribution of genetics to explaining individual differences in attachment styles?
How does the concept of 'intracultural variation' relate to cross-cultural studies of attachment?
How does the concept of 'intracultural variation' relate to cross-cultural studies of attachment?
What is the central premise of the maternal sensitivity hypothesis in attachment theory?
What is the central premise of the maternal sensitivity hypothesis in attachment theory?
How does 'mind-mindedness' differ from 'sensitivity' in the context of maternal care and attachment?
How does 'mind-mindedness' differ from 'sensitivity' in the context of maternal care and attachment?
What is the central idea behind assessing 'appropriate mind-related comments' as a measure of mind-mindedness?
What is the central idea behind assessing 'appropriate mind-related comments' as a measure of mind-mindedness?
What is the main takeaway regarding the stability of Strange Situation (SS) classifications over time?
What is the main takeaway regarding the stability of Strange Situation (SS) classifications over time?
What is the significance of 'Adult Attachment Interviews' in later effects?
What is the significance of 'Adult Attachment Interviews' in later effects?
What might later effects be linked to regarding changes in attachment style?
What might later effects be linked to regarding changes in attachment style?
What conclusion regarding the nature/nurture relationship can be reached from the information?
What conclusion regarding the nature/nurture relationship can be reached from the information?
According to Bowlby, what served as the model for other relationships?
According to Bowlby, what served as the model for other relationships?
What did the NICHD study (2006) find regarding childcare and its effects on children?
What did the NICHD study (2006) find regarding childcare and its effects on children?
Which attachment style involves children being afraid of the stranger in The Strange Situation?
Which attachment style involves children being afraid of the stranger in The Strange Situation?
What is the primary focus when considering a mother's 'mind-mindedness'?
What is the primary focus when considering a mother's 'mind-mindedness'?
A child displays curiosity and problem-solving skills at 2 years old, and social confidence at nursery at 3 years old. According to the information, what could this relate to?
A child displays curiosity and problem-solving skills at 2 years old, and social confidence at nursery at 3 years old. According to the information, what could this relate to?
According to Ainsworth, a child in the Strange Situation is noted to show proximity and contacting seeking. In terms of scoring the Strange Situation, how often are these scored?
According to Ainsworth, a child in the Strange Situation is noted to show proximity and contacting seeking. In terms of scoring the Strange Situation, how often are these scored?
How did Ainsworth adjust Bowlby's original theory?
How did Ainsworth adjust Bowlby's original theory?
What did Harlow's monkey experiments show?
What did Harlow's monkey experiments show?
According to the definition provided, what is the core component of Theory of Mind (ToM)?
According to the definition provided, what is the core component of Theory of Mind (ToM)?
Why is Theory of Mind referred to as a 'theory'?
Why is Theory of Mind referred to as a 'theory'?
How does the understanding of Theory of Mind aid in predicting behavior?
How does the understanding of Theory of Mind aid in predicting behavior?
A child who struggles with the concept of hide-and-seek, standing in plain sight while covering their eyes, demonstrates a failure in Theory of Mind because:
A child who struggles with the concept of hide-and-seek, standing in plain sight while covering their eyes, demonstrates a failure in Theory of Mind because:
What does the successful completion of a false belief task indicate about a child's cognitive development?
What does the successful completion of a false belief task indicate about a child's cognitive development?
In the Maxi task, what key element are younger children struggling with when they incorrectly predict where Maxi will look for the chocolate?
In the Maxi task, what key element are younger children struggling with when they incorrectly predict where Maxi will look for the chocolate?
During the Maxi task, why does removing the 'competing ideas' (current chocolate position) improve 4-year-olds' performance?
During the Maxi task, why does removing the 'competing ideas' (current chocolate position) improve 4-year-olds' performance?
How does the Sally-Anne task assess a child's understanding of false beliefs?
How does the Sally-Anne task assess a child's understanding of false beliefs?
In the Smarties task, what does a 4-year-old's correct response ('sweets') to the question 'What did you think was in the box before it was opened?' demonstrate?
In the Smarties task, what does a 4-year-old's correct response ('sweets') to the question 'What did you think was in the box before it was opened?' demonstrate?
What cognitive ability is assessed by asking a child in the Smarties task: 'When your friend comes in I’m going to show her this box. What will she think is in the box?'
What cognitive ability is assessed by asking a child in the Smarties task: 'When your friend comes in I’m going to show her this box. What will she think is in the box?'
Children's correlated performance on false belief, representational change, and appearance-reality tasks suggests what about the development of Theory of Mind?
Children's correlated performance on false belief, representational change, and appearance-reality tasks suggests what about the development of Theory of Mind?
What factors may explain the difficulties children face when engaging in traditional Theory of Mind tasks like the Maxi task?
What factors may explain the difficulties children face when engaging in traditional Theory of Mind tasks like the Maxi task?
In Woodward's (1998) study, what did 9-month-old infants' longer looking time at the new goal (compared to the new location) suggest about their understanding of actions?
In Woodward's (1998) study, what did 9-month-old infants' longer looking time at the new goal (compared to the new location) suggest about their understanding of actions?
What did Onishi & Baillargeon's (2005) study suggest about 15-month-old infants' understanding of false beliefs?
What did Onishi & Baillargeon's (2005) study suggest about 15-month-old infants' understanding of false beliefs?
What does the 'dualist theory' propose regarding the development of Theory of Mind?
What does the 'dualist theory' propose regarding the development of Theory of Mind?
According to Perner & Ruffman (2005), what is characteristic of 'implicit ToM'?
According to Perner & Ruffman (2005), what is characteristic of 'implicit ToM'?
What is the main idea behind 'Theory theory' as an explanation for Theory of Mind?
What is the main idea behind 'Theory theory' as an explanation for Theory of Mind?
What does 'Simulation theory' suggest about approaching Theory of Mind?
What does 'Simulation theory' suggest about approaching Theory of Mind?
How does Kulke (2018)'s research contribute to the understanding of Theory of Mind?
How does Kulke (2018)'s research contribute to the understanding of Theory of Mind?
According to Rubio-Fernandes & Geurts (2013), what might be primarily responsible for 3.5-year-olds’ failure on traditional false belief tasks?
According to Rubio-Fernandes & Geurts (2013), what might be primarily responsible for 3.5-year-olds’ failure on traditional false belief tasks?
How does the 'Duplo Task' simplify the assessment of false belief understanding in young children?
How does the 'Duplo Task' simplify the assessment of false belief understanding in young children?
In the Duplo task, children struggled if the Duplo girl left the scene. What does this indicate?
In the Duplo task, children struggled if the Duplo girl left the scene. What does this indicate?
In the Duplo task, children struggled if they were asked to give a verbal response. What does this indicate?
In the Duplo task, children struggled if they were asked to give a verbal response. What does this indicate?
Which of the following is a key takeaway regarding the development of Theory of Mind (ToM)?
Which of the following is a key takeaway regarding the development of Theory of Mind (ToM)?
If a child is able to predict what another person wants, but not necessarily why they want it, which kind of understanding is likely being demonstrated?
If a child is able to predict what another person wants, but not necessarily why they want it, which kind of understanding is likely being demonstrated?
Which of these statements is most consistent with the conclusions?
Which of these statements is most consistent with the conclusions?
Why did the experimenter need to 'prompt' the child throughout The Duplo Task?
Why did the experimenter need to 'prompt' the child throughout The Duplo Task?
If an infant is able to pass a false belief task at 15 months, how can success on the Sally Anne task at age 4 be described?
If an infant is able to pass a false belief task at 15 months, how can success on the Sally Anne task at age 4 be described?
Why is a complex long script something which can impact performance relating to ToM?
Why is a complex long script something which can impact performance relating to ToM?
If a child understands that a person will look for something where they last saw it, what does this indicate about their view on mental states?
If a child understands that a person will look for something where they last saw it, what does this indicate about their view on mental states?
In the trolley problem scenarios, what key factor distinguishes the 'spur' case from the 'surgeon' and 'A-bomb' cases, leading to differing moral intuitions?
In the trolley problem scenarios, what key factor distinguishes the 'spur' case from the 'surgeon' and 'A-bomb' cases, leading to differing moral intuitions?
What is the central question raised by the trolley problem and similar moral dilemmas regarding our moral principles?
What is the central question raised by the trolley problem and similar moral dilemmas regarding our moral principles?
What is a proposed origin of hardwired moral intuitions that influence our responses to moral dilemmas?
What is a proposed origin of hardwired moral intuitions that influence our responses to moral dilemmas?
In Piaget's research on children's moral development, which method did he use to understand their perspectives on rules and moral dilemmas?
In Piaget's research on children's moral development, which method did he use to understand their perspectives on rules and moral dilemmas?
What is the key difference between heteronomous and autonomous morality in Piaget's theory of moral development?
What is the key difference between heteronomous and autonomous morality in Piaget's theory of moral development?
How would a child in Piaget's heteronomous morality stage likely judge who is naughtier: a child who accidentally broke 15 cups or a child who intentionally broke one cup?
How would a child in Piaget's heteronomous morality stage likely judge who is naughtier: a child who accidentally broke 15 cups or a child who intentionally broke one cup?
According to Piaget's theory, what cognitive shift is crucial for children to develop autonomous morality?
According to Piaget's theory, what cognitive shift is crucial for children to develop autonomous morality?
What was a controversial claim made by Kohlberg regarding moral reasoning and cognitive development?
What was a controversial claim made by Kohlberg regarding moral reasoning and cognitive development?
In Kohlberg's Heinz dilemma, what reasoning would characterize someone at the 'Interpersonally normative morality' stage (Level 2)?
In Kohlberg's Heinz dilemma, what reasoning would characterize someone at the 'Interpersonally normative morality' stage (Level 2)?
According to Kohlberg's stages of moral development, at what level does an individual begin to evaluate whether laws align with human rights and values?
According to Kohlberg's stages of moral development, at what level does an individual begin to evaluate whether laws align with human rights and values?
What does research suggest about the progression through Kohlberg's stages of moral development?
What does research suggest about the progression through Kohlberg's stages of moral development?
What was a key critique raised by Gilligan regarding Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
What was a key critique raised by Gilligan regarding Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
According to Hamlin's research, what is suggested by infants' preference for helpers over hinderers?
According to Hamlin's research, what is suggested by infants' preference for helpers over hinderers?
What did Rakoczy's (2008) research on young children (2-3 years) reveal about their awareness of rules?
What did Rakoczy's (2008) research on young children (2-3 years) reveal about their awareness of rules?
How does the concept of 'moral retribution' manifest in infants, according to Hamlin's research?
How does the concept of 'moral retribution' manifest in infants, according to Hamlin's research?
What conclusion can be drawn from Sloane, Baillargeon, and Premack's (2012) study regarding infants' sense of fairness?
What conclusion can be drawn from Sloane, Baillargeon, and Premack's (2012) study regarding infants' sense of fairness?
What is suggested when combining the findings of Piaget and Kohlberg with Hamlin's work on infant morality?
What is suggested when combining the findings of Piaget and Kohlberg with Hamlin's work on infant morality?
According to the information, what is a major distinction between Hamlin's and Kohlberg's approaches to studying morality?
According to the information, what is a major distinction between Hamlin's and Kohlberg's approaches to studying morality?
How does the trolley and the surgeon problem suggest how we operate morally?
How does the trolley and the surgeon problem suggest how we operate morally?
In Kohlberg's Heinz Dilemma, which option best represents pre-conventional morality?
In Kohlberg's Heinz Dilemma, which option best represents pre-conventional morality?
What concept of infants aligns with moral goodness?
What concept of infants aligns with moral goodness?
How does the 'doctrine of double effect' affect people's likelihood to do something?
How does the 'doctrine of double effect' affect people's likelihood to do something?
Which of the following choices accurately describes Piaget's view of children's moral rules?
Which of the following choices accurately describes Piaget's view of children's moral rules?
When thinking about someone in post-conventional morality, what qualities can be expected of them?
When thinking about someone in post-conventional morality, what qualities can be expected of them?
How did the ManyBabies4 study extend upon Hamlin's (2013) research?
How did the ManyBabies4 study extend upon Hamlin's (2013) research?
According to the information, what is not a component that encompasses a moral sense from an evolutionary perspective?
According to the information, what is not a component that encompasses a moral sense from an evolutionary perspective?
What does the observation of spontaneous conflict in 3-year-olds demonstrate?
What does the observation of spontaneous conflict in 3-year-olds demonstrate?
Gilligan argued that men's moral compasses differed than women's. What did she posit as the quality that men focused on?
Gilligan argued that men's moral compasses differed than women's. What did she posit as the quality that men focused on?
From the provided information, the perspective that babies have a moral core is best supported by?
From the provided information, the perspective that babies have a moral core is best supported by?
What is a key distinction between the 'developmental disorder' and 'neurodiversity' perspectives?
What is a key distinction between the 'developmental disorder' and 'neurodiversity' perspectives?
Which of the following is NOT a typical characteristic of a developmental disorder?
Which of the following is NOT a typical characteristic of a developmental disorder?
According to the DSM, what broader diagnostic category encompasses Autism, PDD-NOS, and Asperger syndrome?
According to the DSM, what broader diagnostic category encompasses Autism, PDD-NOS, and Asperger syndrome?
What key observation did Kanner make in his initial descriptions of autism?
What key observation did Kanner make in his initial descriptions of autism?
What does the term 'spiky profile' refer to in the context of ASD?
What does the term 'spiky profile' refer to in the context of ASD?
Which of the following is NOT a diagnostic criterion for social communication and interaction deficits in ASD?
Which of the following is NOT a diagnostic criterion for social communication and interaction deficits in ASD?
What does 'echolalia' mean, regarding restricted or repetitive behaviour in ASD?
What does 'echolalia' mean, regarding restricted or repetitive behaviour in ASD?
What is a challenge one encounters when trying to identify the cause of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?
What is a challenge one encounters when trying to identify the cause of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?
What is considered a major failure of science communication related to autism?
What is considered a major failure of science communication related to autism?
In the context of ASD-related theories, what does 'Weak Central Coherence' refer to?
In the context of ASD-related theories, what does 'Weak Central Coherence' refer to?
How did Happé's work qualify the relationship between ASD and Theory of Mind (ToM)?
How did Happé's work qualify the relationship between ASD and Theory of Mind (ToM)?
What is 'double empathy' in the context of autism?
What is 'double empathy' in the context of autism?
In the context of ASD, what cognitive process is described as an umbrella term that includes planning, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility?
In the context of ASD, what cognitive process is described as an umbrella term that includes planning, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility?
What is the key claim of Baron-Cohen's 'extreme male brain' theory regarding ASD?
What is the key claim of Baron-Cohen's 'extreme male brain' theory regarding ASD?
What is a significant criticism of Baron-Cohen's 'extreme male brain' theory of autism?
What is a significant criticism of Baron-Cohen's 'extreme male brain' theory of autism?
Aside from genetics, what other broad factors influence how developmental disorders are manifested?
Aside from genetics, what other broad factors influence how developmental disorders are manifested?
What is the main gene implicated in Williams Syndrome?
What is the main gene implicated in Williams Syndrome?
What genetic anomaly is most commonly associated with Down Syndrome?
What genetic anomaly is most commonly associated with Down Syndrome?
How does language ability generally compare between individuals with Williams Syndrome (WS) and Down Syndrome (DS) who have similar overall IQs?
How does language ability generally compare between individuals with Williams Syndrome (WS) and Down Syndrome (DS) who have similar overall IQs?
Which statement correctly describes the comparative visuospatial capabilities between Williams Syndrome and Down Syndrome?
Which statement correctly describes the comparative visuospatial capabilities between Williams Syndrome and Down Syndrome?
What common social characteristic is often observed in individuals with both Williams Syndrome (WS) and Down Syndrome (DS)?
What common social characteristic is often observed in individuals with both Williams Syndrome (WS) and Down Syndrome (DS)?
What does the graph by Bellugi et al, 2000 show about Visuospatial capabilities?
What does the graph by Bellugi et al, 2000 show about Visuospatial capabilities?
How does attention to faces typically differ between individuals with ASD compared to those with WS or DS?
How does attention to faces typically differ between individuals with ASD compared to those with WS or DS?
Which statement provides the most accurate summary of the relative strengths and weaknesses observed in Williams Syndrome (WS) and Down Syndrome (DS)?
Which statement provides the most accurate summary of the relative strengths and weaknesses observed in Williams Syndrome (WS) and Down Syndrome (DS)?
Do disorders with a known genetic cause display completely uniform manifestation of behaviours?
Do disorders with a known genetic cause display completely uniform manifestation of behaviours?
What conclusion can be drawn about the nature of developmental disorders?
What conclusion can be drawn about the nature of developmental disorders?
The fact that some autistic participants passed the Sally Anne task means what?
The fact that some autistic participants passed the Sally Anne task means what?
If Testosterone levels in the womb are linked at all, they are higher in ASD than in whom?
If Testosterone levels in the womb are linked at all, they are higher in ASD than in whom?
What does Sporadic genetic disorder in Williams Syndrome refer to?
What does Sporadic genetic disorder in Williams Syndrome refer to?
Flashcards
Critical Period
Critical Period
A time when the brain is especially sensitive to specific environmental stimuli.
Imprinting
Imprinting
A rapid learning process where a young animal fixes its attention on the first object it sees.
Active vs. Passive Experience
Active vs. Passive Experience
Direct interaction with the environment vs. passively receiving information.
Observational Studies
Observational Studies
Observing behavior in a natural setting, noting interactions without intervention.
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Neuroimaging
Neuroimaging
Techniques like EEG and fMRI to study brain activity during development.
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Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology
The field that examines psychological changes across the entire lifespan, emphasizing it as a dynamic process.
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Nature vs. Nurture
Nature vs. Nurture
The debate concerning the relative importance of innate qualities (nature) versus environmental factors (nurture) in development.
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Nativist Position
Nativist Position
The perspective that emphasizes innate endowments and pre-programming as primary drivers of development.
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Empiricist Position
Empiricist Position
The perspective that emphasizes the role of environmental influence, learning, observation, and culture in shaping development.
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Neuro-Constructivist Approach
Neuro-Constructivist Approach
A modern approach that emphasizes the reciprocal interactions between genes and environment in constructing neural pathways and development.
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Twin Studies
Twin Studies
Studies that compare monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins to assess the heritability of traits.
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Monozygotic (MZ) Twins
Monozygotic (MZ) Twins
Twins that share 100% of their genes.
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Twins Early Development Study (TEDS)
Twins Early Development Study (TEDS)
A famous twin study in the UK that investigates the genetic and environmental influences on early development.
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Constructivism
Constructivism
Children actively construct their understanding of the world by creating mental blueprints.
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Schema
Schema
A mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.
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Assimilation
Assimilation
The process of fitting new information into existing schemas.
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Accommodation
Accommodation
The process of changing or creating new schemas to fit new information.
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Equilibration
Equilibration
The driving force behind cognitive development; seeking a balance between existing schemas and new experiences.
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Sensorimotor Stage
Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, from birth to 2 years, focused on sensory and motor skills.
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Object Permanence
Object Permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight.
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A-not-B Error
A-not-B Error
Looking for a hidden object where it was last found, despite seeing it moved somewhere else.
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Social Learning
Social Learning
Learning happens through interactions with others, not just on one's own.
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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.
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Scaffolding (in learning)
Scaffolding (in learning)
Support provided to a learner that helps them bridge the ZPD and master a task.
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Active building on existent structures
Active building on existent structures
Learning builds upon what you already know and have experienced.
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Symbolic Representation
Symbolic Representation
Understanding that objects can represent other things, even when not physically present.
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Preoperational Stage
Preoperational Stage
Piaget's stage (2-7 years) marked by language development, symbolic thinking, and make-believe play, but lacking logical operations.
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Preoperational Egocentrism
Preoperational Egocentrism
Difficulty understanding that others have different viewpoints, both literally and figuratively.
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Preoperational Conservation
Preoperational Conservation
Inability to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance.
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Preoperational Class Inclusion
Preoperational Class Inclusion
Difficulty understanding that a class can include smaller subclasses.
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Concrete Operational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget's stage (7-11 years) when children develop logical thinking about concrete events and can pass conservation tasks.
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Seriation
Seriation
The ability to arrange items in a logical order (e.g., by size).
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Transitive Inference
Transitive Inference
The ability to infer the relationship between two items by knowing their relationship to a third.
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Formal Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage
Piaget's stage (11+ years) characterized by abstract and hypothetical thinking.
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Naughty Teddy Experiment
Naughty Teddy Experiment
Children can pass if the transformation is accidental.
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Rephrasing Questions
Rephrasing Questions
Altering question wording to reveal the actual meaning.
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Memory and Transitive Inference
Memory and Transitive Inference
Recalling premises for transitive reasoning.
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Looking Time Studies
Looking Time Studies
Using looking time studies reveal earlier competences.
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Social Context of Learning
Social Context of Learning
Individual knowledge construction in social setting.
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Spelke: Core Knowledge
Spelke: Core Knowledge
Knowledge is mainly innate and domain-specific.
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Gopnik: Infant Scientist
Gopnik: Infant Scientist
Infants learn through exploration and evidence-seeking; less domain-specific with some innate knowledge.
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Innate Knowledge (Spelke)
Innate Knowledge (Spelke)
Knowledge is innate and domain-specific.
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Learning Style (Gopnik)
Learning Style (Gopnik)
Emphasizes exploration and evidence-seeking.
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Role of Consolidation and Enrichment (Spelke)
Role of Consolidation and Enrichment (Spelke)
Learning enriches conceptions around an unchanging core.
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Who was Vygotsky?
Who was Vygotsky?
A Russian psychologist (1896-1934) who emphasized the role of social interaction in learning and cognitive development.
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What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other.
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What is Scaffolding (Vygotsky)?
What is Scaffolding (Vygotsky)?
Support provided by a teacher or peer to help a learner master tasks within their Zone of Proximal Development.
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What is the Kellman and Spelke (1983) experiment?
What is the Kellman and Spelke (1983) experiment?
Infants were presented with a rod that was partially hidden behind a block, and researchers measured their reactions when the rod was whole vs. broken.
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What did Kellman and Spelke's experiment show?
What did Kellman and Spelke's experiment show?
Even young infants perceive a partially hidden rod as a complete object, suggesting they have some understanding of object permanence earlier than Piaget proposed.
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What is Social Learning (Vygotsky)?
What is Social Learning (Vygotsky)?
Learning is enhanced through collaboration and guidance from someone more experienced.
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What 'tools' do children use (Vygotsky)?
What 'tools' do children use (Vygotsky)?
Children use physical and symbolic tools from their culture, like language and math, to learn and develop..
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How did infants react to the broken rod?
How did infants react to the broken rod?
Infants look longer at the broken rod, suggesting that they perceive the initial, occluded rod as a single, complete object.
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Spelke's Core Knowledge Theory
Spelke's Core Knowledge Theory
Infants possess innate, domain-specific knowledge systems, each with core principles.
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Object Unity Perception
Object Unity Perception
Analyzing movements and configurations of visible parts helps infants perceive object unity.
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Violation-of-Expectation Paradigm
Violation-of-Expectation Paradigm
Research method where unexpected events reveal infant knowledge through increased attention.
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Object Constancy
Object Constancy
Infants understand objects have continuous existence, even when hidden from view
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Solidity Constraint
Solidity Constraint
Objects cannot pass through other solid objects.
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Approximate Number System
Approximate Number System
Infants differentiate between large set sizes, e.g., 8 vs 16 items.
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Contour Length
Contour Length
Infants may respond to total line length, not number, when viewing sets of objects.
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Number vs Extent Perception
Number vs Extent Perception
Infants compute number even with differing object features, and compute extent with identical objects.
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Geometric Reorientation
Geometric Reorientation
Young children use geometric room information for reorientation.
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Color Cue Neglect
Color Cue Neglect
Young children may not use color cues for reorientation in small spaces.
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Infants as Scientists
Infants as Scientists
Infants are little scientists who form and test hypotheses about their environments.
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Inductive Inference
Inductive Inference
Infants make deductions about a whole group based on a small sample.
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Sample Generalization
Sample Generalization
Inferring the nature of a group from a small sample
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Causal Inference
Causal Inference
Even young children can identify objects with the same causal properties.
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Blicket Detector
Blicket Detector
Understanding that some objects possess the power to activate a device
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Neural Development
Neural Development
The study of physical brain growth and development of functional neural networks.
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EEG (Electroencephalography)
EEG (Electroencephalography)
Tests electrical activity in the brain with high temporal resolution but low spatial resolution, suitable for early infancy.
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fMRI (functional MRI)
fMRI (functional MRI)
Measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow, offering high spatial resolution.
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MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
Measures magnetic fields produced by the brain's electrical currents with high temporal resolution.
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NIRS (Near Infra-Red Spectroscopy)
NIRS (Near Infra-Red Spectroscopy)
Measures blood flow changes using near infra-red light scattering and absorption.
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Executive Function (EF)
Executive Function (EF)
A cognitive umbrella term for conscious, goal-directed thought in novel circumstances.
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Tower of Hanoi Task
Tower of Hanoi Task
A measure of problem-solving and planning skills, showing improvement with age.
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Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)
Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)
The brain region strongly associated with executive functions; matures through adolescence.
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A-not-B Error Task
A-not-B Error Task
A famous task where infants at 8-12 months perseverate by searching at location A even after seeing the object moved to location B.
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Dimension Card Change Sort
Dimension Card Change Sort
A test of attentional shifting where children sort cards by one dimension and then switch to another.
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Day/Night Task
Day/Night Task
Requires literacy. A task commonly used to measure inhibition, requiring a participant to say the opposite of what they see.
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Go/NoGo Task
Go/NoGo Task
A task where participants press a button for one letter, but inhibit response when a specific sequence appears.
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Visual Evoked Potentials (VEP)
Visual Evoked Potentials (VEP)
Scalp activity recorded in response to visual stimuli.
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Orientation Perception
Orientation Perception
Ability to distinguish changes in line orientation.
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Cortical Orientation Development
Cortical Orientation Development
Sensitivity to changes in line orientation develops as early as 3 weeks.
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Motion Perception
Motion Perception
Ability to perceive movement direction.
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Emergence of Motion Perception
Emergence of Motion Perception
Responses to directional motion emerge around 10-13 weeks.
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Looming Perception
Looming Perception
The perception of an object rapidly approaching.
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Defensive Blinking
Defensive Blinking
Blinking in response to an approaching object.
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Collision Avoidance
Collision Avoidance
Infants start blinking to avoid collision around 4 months.
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Stereopsis
Stereopsis
Depth perception based on differences between images in the two eyes.
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Stereopsis Emergence
Stereopsis Emergence
Stereopsis responses emerge around 11-13 weeks.
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Visual Cliff Experiment
Visual Cliff Experiment
Test to see if depth is innate (nature).
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Traditional Motor Development
Traditional Motor Development
Motor development as a progression through a series of milestones.
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Dynamic Systems Theory
Dynamic Systems Theory
Motor abilities are present earlier, but expression is limited.
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Individual Differences in Motor Development
Individual Differences in Motor Development
Motor development varies depending on external factors and experience.
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Infant stepping
Infant stepping
Infants take approximately 9000 steps per day.
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Experience and Visual Cliff
Experience and Visual Cliff
Infants avoid the cliff based on crawling experience, not age.
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Stepping Reflex
Stepping Reflex
Newborn stepping reflex disappears around 8 weeks naturally.
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Context and Stepping
Context and Stepping
Stepping frequency influenced by added weights or buoyancy.
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Bowlby's Attachment Theory
Bowlby's Attachment Theory
Innate drive to form a close relationship with a caregiver; social releaser behaviors elicit care.
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Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
Breaking the infant-caregiver bond in the first 5 years can lead to aggression, depression, and delinquency.
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Pre-attachment Phase
Pre-attachment Phase
Infants orient and signal to anyone.
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Attachment in the making
Attachment in the making
Infants increasingly orient to and seek comfort from the primary caregiver.
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'Clear Cut' Attachment
'Clear Cut' Attachment
Infant stays close to the primary caregiver, shows separation protest, and fear of strangers.
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Formation of reciprocal relationship
Formation of reciprocal relationship
Child accommodates mother’s needs, reduces proximity-seeking, and develops an internal working model of relationships.
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Internal Working Model
Internal Working Model
Captures beliefs about trustworthiness of others, one's own value, and social effectiveness.
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Harlow's Monkey Studies
Harlow's Monkey Studies
Monkeys need ‘contact comfort’ from the mother, not just food.
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Multiple Attachment Figures
Multiple Attachment Figures
Infants can have more than one attachment figure.
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The Strange Situation
The Strange Situation
A structured observation to assess attachment styles in infants.
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Strange Situation: Reunions
Strange Situation: Reunions
Reactions scored during reunions with the mother.
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Strange Situation: Measured Behaviors
Strange Situation: Measured Behaviors
Proximity seeking, contact maintaining, avoidance, and resistance.
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Insecure Avoidant Attachment
Insecure Avoidant Attachment
Infant does not play much with the mother, is not distressed by her absence, and avoids her on reunions.
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Secure Attachment
Secure Attachment
Uses mother as a secure base for exploration and is easily calmed by her return.
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Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment
Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment
Very distressed by mother’s absence, shows resistance upon her return.
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Insecure Disorganized Attachment
Insecure Disorganized Attachment
No consistent strategy for seeking contact or comfort; contradictory behavior.
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Genetic Influence on Attachment
Genetic Influence on Attachment
Genetics explain only a small portion of the variance in attachment styles.
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Cultural Variations in Attachment
Cultural Variations in Attachment
Different cultural norms can result in different classifications in the Strange Situation.
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Continuous Maternal Relationship
Continuous Maternal Relationship
Infants need a continuous relationship with their mother, especially during the first three years.
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Maternal Sensitivity Hypothesis
Maternal Sensitivity Hypothesis
The mother’s responses to the infant determine their attachment.
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Maternal Sensitivity
Maternal Sensitivity
Promptness, appropriateness, and completeness of responses.
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Mind-Mindedness
Mind-Mindedness
Understanding the infant as a mental agent capable of intentional action.
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Mind-Mindedness: Measures
Mind-Mindedness: Measures
Mother's responsiveness to changes in the infant’s gaze and object-directed actions.
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Theory of Mind (ToM)
Theory of Mind (ToM)
The ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that may be different from one's own.
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Why is ToM important?
Why is ToM important?
Attributing mental states to others allows us to explain and predict their actions and speech.
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False Belief Understanding
False Belief Understanding
Understanding that others can have a different perspective or belief than your own.
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The Maxi Task
The Maxi Task
A test to assess false belief understanding involving a story about a boy named Maxi and chocolate.
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The Sally-Anne Task
The Sally-Anne Task
A false belief task where Sally puts a ball in her basket, and Anne moves it while Sally is away.
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The Smarties Task
The Smarties Task
A test where children are shown a Smarties tube filled with pencils to assess their understanding of false belief.
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Representational Change
Representational Change
Understanding that someone can hold wrong view
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ToM Development Age
ToM Development Age
Performance on false belief tasks develops universally around this age.
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Infant Goal Inference
Infant Goal Inference
Looking time is measured to determine whether infants can infer intentions
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False Belief in Infants
False Belief in Infants
Infants look longer at an unexpected event, like someone looking in the correct box- suggesting that they expect the actor to look where they falsely believe the object to be
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Implicit vs Explicit ToM
Implicit vs Explicit ToM
Qualitatively different types of understanding of ToM, with implicit developing before explicit.
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Perspective-tracking
Perspective-tracking
Track whose perspective they are supposed to track as Maxi leaves the room.
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The Trolley Problem
The Trolley Problem
A situation where a trolley is headed towards five people, and you can divert it to a track with one person.
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The Surgeon Problem
The Surgeon Problem
A situation where a surgeon can sacrifice a healthy patient to save five others needing transplants.
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Doctrine of Double Effect
Doctrine of Double Effect
Idea that there's a moral difference between intending harm and foreseeing harm as a consequence.
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Moral Intuitions
Moral Intuitions
Hardwired moral reactions resulting from evolution.
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Morality
Morality
Principles that help define an individual’s ideas of right and wrong
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Moral Reasoning
Moral Reasoning
Cognitive processes used to consider moral rules, their basis, and conflicts.
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Amoral Stage
Amoral Stage
Piaget's stage (0-5 years) where children are unaware of rules in games.
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Heteronomous Morality
Heteronomous Morality
Piaget's stage (5-10 years) where children see rules as absolute and unchangeable.
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Autonomous Morality
Autonomous Morality
Piaget's stage (10+ years) where children understand rules are alterable by social agreement.
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Consequence-Based Morality
Consequence-Based Morality
Focusing on the outcomes rather than intentions when judging an action.
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Intention-Based Morality
Intention-Based Morality
Focusing on the reasons behind actions rather than just the outcomes.
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Intentions vs. Consequences
Intentions vs. Consequences
Understanding intentions and consequences are separate in moral judgment.
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Kohlberg's Extension
Kohlberg's Extension
Moral reasoning extends into adulthood, linked to cognitive development.
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Pre-Conventional Morality
Pre-Conventional Morality
Kohlberg's first level, focused on avoiding punishment and serving self-interest.
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Conventional Morality
Conventional Morality
Kohlberg's second level, concerned with social approval and maintaining order.
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Post-Conventional Morality
Post-Conventional Morality
Kohlberg's highest level, based on universal ethical principles and human rights.
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Moral Core
Moral Core
An innate moral sense present in young children, facilitating cooperation.
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Prosocial Behavior
Prosocial Behavior
Helping behavior intended to benefit someone else.
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Moral Evaluation
Moral Evaluation
Evaluating others' actions to identify and dislike uncooperative individuals.
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Moral Retribution
Moral Retribution
Punishing those who behave badly.
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Helper vs. Hinderer
Helper vs. Hinderer
Babies show preference for helper over hinderer.
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Neurodiversity
Neurodiversity
A perspective that focuses on individual neurological differences without pathologizing them, emphasizing societal roles and norms.
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Developmental Disorder
Developmental Disorder
Focuses on symptoms, causes, and treatments of conditions arising in the developmental period.
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Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
A cluster of conditions characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.
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Communication Difficulties (ASD)
Communication Difficulties (ASD)
Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity, nonverbal communicative behaviors, and developing/maintaining relationships.
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Restricted/Repetitive Behavior (ASD)
Restricted/Repetitive Behavior (ASD)
Stereotyped movements, insistence on sameness, fixated interests, and unusual sensory interests.
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Weak Central Coherence
Weak Central Coherence
A local and detail-focused processing style, impacting global configuration understanding.
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Extreme Male Brain Theory
Extreme Male Brain Theory
A theory that claims individuals with ASD have more 'male' brain characteristics, emphasizing systemizing over empathizing.
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Williams Syndrome (WS)
Williams Syndrome (WS)
A genetic disorder due to a deletion of genes on chromosome 7, impacting medical, physical, and cognitive development.
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Down Syndrome (DS)
Down Syndrome (DS)
A genetic disorder caused by a trisomy of chromosome 21.
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Executive Function
Executive Function
An umbrella term for high-order control processes like planning, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility.
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Double Empathy Problem
Double Empathy Problem
Individuals with autism struggle to read the emotions of non-autistic people, causing negative first impressions.
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- Developmental disorders focus on symptoms, causes, and treatments.
- Neurodiversity emphasizes individual differences and societal roles, moving away from pathologizing.
What Makes a Developmental Disorder?
- Onset occurs during the developmental period, typically before school age.
- Effects can be domain-specific or global deficits across multiple domains.
- High rates of co-occurrence exist among developmental disorders (e.g., ADHD).
- Diagnoses consider both excesses (overactive behaviors) and deficits.
Autism and ASD
- The APA and DSM (2013) categorize autism, PDD-NOS, and Asperger's syndrome under the umbrella term ASD.
- Kanner first specifically described autism in 1943.
- Prevalence is approximately 1 in 100 or even 1 in 54.
Kanner's Description of Autism
- Individuals with autism exhibit stereotyped movements, disregard people, and are drawn to objects, often spinning ones.
- They may angrily resist interference.
Key Aspects of Autism
- Autism is present across the lifespan and all IQ levels.
- It is diagnosed more frequently in males than females.
- Profiles vary greatly, with diagnosis based on deficits in social and communicative abilities, as well as repetitive behaviors.
Spiky Profiles in Autism
- Individuals with autism have "spiky" profiles, with magnified differences between strengths and weaknesses.
- This variation occurs over time and across skills.
- Understanding these profiles can inform support needs, such as in generalist-focused school settings.
Communication Difficulties in Autism
- Persistent difficulties in social communication and interaction includes:
- Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity.
- Impairments in nonverbal communicative behaviors.
- Challenges in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships.
Restricted/Repetitive Behavior in Autism
- Characterized by:
- Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech.
- Insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns.
- Highly restricted, fixated interests abnormal in intensity or focus.
- Hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input or unusual sensory interests.
Heterogeneity in Autism
- ASD is an extremely heterogeneous disorder.
- The cause of autism is unknown, with no consistently identified specific genes.
- Effects and severity range greatly.
Autism and the MMR Vaccine
- Wakefield's publication linking autism to the MMR vaccine has been refuted many times.
- Offit and Coffin (2003) provide detailed refutation.
- Persistence of this claim represents a failure in science communication.
Related Theories of Autism
- Deficit in Theory of Mind (ToM).
- Poor Executive Function.
- Weak Central Coherence.
- Extreme Male Brain.
TOM: The Sally Anne Task and Autism
- Typically developing children (85%) and individuals with Down syndrome (86%) generally pass the Sally Anne task.
- Only 20% of children with ASD pass the Sally-Anne task.
- ASD participants pass in a verbally mediated and conscious fashion (Happé, 1995).
TOM: Double Empathy
- Non-autistic individuals struggle to read feelings/emotions of autistic people.
- Non-autistic individuals are more likely to form negative first impressions of autistic people.
- This phenomenon is known as double empathy.
Executive Function and Autism
- Executive function (EF) is an umbrella term for high-order control processes (Ozonoff & Jensen, 1999).
- EF includes planning, inhibition, cognitive flexibility (set-shifting), multitasking, working memory, and attention.
- Individuals with ASD often have lower executive function.
Weak Central Coherence and Autism
- Individuals with ASD have a Local, detail-focused processing style (Frith & Happé, 1994).
- Features are perceived at the expense of global configuration and meaning.
- Shows poor performance on tasks requiring recognition of global meaning or integration of stimuli in context (Navon figures).
- Good performance where attention to local information helps (Embedded figures).
- Shows favoring a local versus global processing style.
Extreme Male Brain Theory
- Baron-Cohen proposed the extreme male brain theory based on a higher prevalence of ASD in males.
- Testosterone in the womb is higher in ASD than in typical males.
Empathizing vs Systemizing
- Empathizing is "the drive to identify another person’s emotions and thoughts, and to respond to these with an appropriate emotion."
- "Female brain": empathizing better than systemizing.
- Systemizing is "the drive to analyze the variables in a system, to derive the underlying rules that govern the behavior of a system" and the "drive to construct systems."
- "Male brain" : systemizing better than empathizing.
- Baron-Cohen claimed that socialising in ASD done via systemising.
- The scale runs from Females-Males-ASD, with ASD being a more extreme version of male brains.
Criticisms of the Extreme Male Brain Theory
- There is ASD in females, and a good deal more are undiagnosed.
- Some suggest that females are better at masking, but the criteria need work.
- Poor evidence for male / female differences in the general population.
- Evidence for testosterone links very weak.
Other Theories of Autism
- Some researchers suggest that independent, co-existing deficits exist in ASD, including weak CC, ToM, and EF (Pellicano et al., 2006).
- Not every child has each deficit (50-70% had deficits on ToM, EF).
- This supports the "spiky profiles" idea.
Williams Syndrome
- Prevalence is approximately 1:20,000.
- Some reports of 1:7,500 (Stromme et al., 2002).
- Williams Syndrome is a sporadic genetic disorder (rarely runs in families).
- It is caused by a deletion of approximately 25-28 genes on chromosome 7.
- The main gene affected/implicated is the elastin gene.
Medical Aspects of Williams Syndrome
- Feeding difficulties and failure to thrive as newborns.
- Extreme heart and blood vessel abnormalities (SVAS).
- Hyperacusis (sensitive hearing).
Physical Aspects of Williams Syndrome
- Facial dysmorphology.
- Short height/stature.
Down Syndrome
- Prevalence 1:1,000 worldwide.
- Caused by a genetic trisomy of Chromosome 21.
- Trisomy occurs in 90-95% of cases.
Medical Aspects of Down Syndrome
- Sucking and feeding problems.
- Congenital heart defects.
- Hearing and vision deficits.
Physical Aspects of Down Syndrome
- Facial dysmorphology.
- Slow growth
WS, DS, and IQ
- WS: Full-scale IQ scores range from 40-90 (mean 55) (Bellugi et al., 2000), indicating mild-moderate learning difficulty (Searcy et al., 2004).
- DS: By adulthood, IQ is generally in the moderate to severely delayed range (e.g., IQ=25-55).
IQ Over Development
- WS: Not much change in IQ over development, but lots of individual differences (Mervis et al 2012).
- DS: Differences between domains of skill are relatively small, and are magnified as the children age and develop. There are therefore developmental changes in the DS cognitive phenotype.
Language in WS and DS
- Individuals with WS have higher language ability than children with DS matched for overall IQ (Jarrold et al., 1998).
- Language falls above full-scale IQ in WS, whereas the opposite is apparent in DS (Gunn & Crombie, 1996; Jarrold et al., 1998).
- In WS, language is a relative strength (Bellugi et al., 1990; Karmiloff-Smith et al., 1995).
- But there are questions as to whether it is truly in tact (Karmiloff-Smith et al 2003).
Visuospatial Tasks
- Both WS and DS struggle, but in different ways.
- This also affects block design tasks like the WISC-R.
WS: Visuospatial vs. Language (Bellugi et al., 2000)
- Individuals with WS show greater difficulty on visuospatial tasks compared to language tasks.
Social Behavior
- Individuals with WS (Frigerio, 2006; Klein-Tasman and Mervis, 2011) and DS (Kasari, 1995) seem to show a pro-social compulsion.
- They relish and seek out social interactions and have a pre-occupation with emotions.
- This might place these individuals at higher risk with things like ‘stranger danger’.
TOM and Faces
- Studies suggest that, like with ASD, ToM might be impaired in DS and WS (although findings are mixed, and there is a lot of individual variation).
- Individuals with ASD tend to pay less attention to faces, while people with DS and WS tend to enjoy (or even get stuck on?) looking at faces.
Summary of WS and DS
- Intelligence is low in both WS and DS; there is more change in DS than WS.
- Language is relatively spared in WS compared with DS.
- Visuospatial skills are relatively spared in DS compared with WS.
- Disorders where we know the genetic cause (WS & DS) tend to be more uniform in their manifestation of behaviours
- There is still a lot of variation within disorders as other factors (environment/support etc) must play a role.
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