Developmental Psychology

Development

• Development refers to the process of change in an organism's physical, social, emotional, and cognitive state

Critical and Sensitive Periods

• A critical period is an optimal time shortly after birth when exposure to certain stimuli produces proper development
• A sensitive period is when organisms are particularly responsive to specific stimuli, behaviors are easily modified, learning depositions are caused, and learning development is affected

Ecological Model of Human Development

• The Ecological Model includes these systems: individual, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

Evolutionary Psychology

• A field of psychology that focuses on adoption, reproduction, and survival

Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes

• Evolutionary developmental psychology uses evolutionary psychology to understand a person's development
• Chromosomes are threadlike structures made of DNA molecules containing genes
• DNA is a complex molecule with the genetic information that makes up chromosomes
• Genes are short DNA segments that carry hereditary information, and activation depends on hormones/environment

Mitosis

• Mitosis is cell division where the nucleus divides into identical nuclei, containing the same number of chromosomes (46), happens in body cells

Meiosis

• Meiosis is a type of cell division that results in four children cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell (23), becoming eggs/sperm, happens in sex cells

Genetic processes

• Crossing-over refers to the process where DNA is exchanged between chromosome pairs in meiosis
• Independent assortment is the principle that each chromosome pair splits independently of other pairs in meiosis
• Adenine, a component of nucleic acids, is the base that pairs with Thymine in DNA
• Cytosine, a component of nucleic acids, is the base that pairs with Guanine in DNA
• Alleles are different versions of the same gene
• Dominant alleles are alleles whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present
• Recessive alleles show their effects only when both alleles are the same, and are masked when there is a dominant allele
• Co-dominant alleles at a locus are responsible for different phenotypes, and both alleles affect the phenotype of the heterozygote
• Heterozygous is an organism that inherits a gene with two different alleles
• Homozygous is an organism that inherits a gene with two alleles of the same type

Germinal Stage

• Fertilization occurs when an egg and sperm fuse into a zygote
• The germinal stage lasts 0-2 weeks and starts with the egg being fertilized and ends when the egg implants in the uterus, and is generally unaffected by teratogens

Zygote and Embryonic Stages

• The zygote is the fertilized egg, it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division, develops into an embryo, and has 23 paired chromosomes where each parent gives half
• The embryonic stage is 2-8 weeks, the embryo develops key physiological features, but is most vulnerable to teratogens

Gestation

• Gestation refers to pregnancy and the growth process from conception to birth

Embryo and Amniotic Sac

• An embryo is a developing human organism implanted on the uterus wall, from about 2 weeks after fertilization
• The amniotic sac is a fluid-filled sac that cushions and protects a developing embryo and fetus in the uterus

Placenta and Umbilical Cord

• The placenta is a disc-like structure in the uterus that nourishes and maintains the fetus through the umbilical cord
• The umbilical cord is a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta

Fetus Development

• Cephalocaudal refers to how a fetus develops starting at the brain, then downward to the legs
• Proximal-distal refers to how a fetus develops starting at internal organs, then outwards

Miscarriage and Foetal Period

• Miscarriage is a spontaneous end of pregnancy before the baby can survive outside
• The foetal period lasts 3 months to delivery, completing development of body structures, systems and first body responses (e.g. thumb sucking)

Foetus and Age of Viability

• A foetus is a developing organism during the foetus period
• The age of viability is about 22 weeks after conception, this is the age at which a fetus may survive outside the parent's uterus

Teratogens

• Teratogens are environmental agents, like chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm, more exposure causes more harm

Health Risks

• Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is a birth defect caused by alcohol abuse by the pregnant parent, it can cause facial deformities, restricted intelligence, and an agitated personality
• Smoking during pregnancy can lead to miscarriage, premature labor, birth defects, and SIDS
• Caffeine during pregnancy can lead to miscarriage, underdevelopment, and low birth weight
• Diethylstilbestrol (DES) is a synthetic hormone, formerly prescribed to prevent miscarriage, and later found to produce cancer in offspring
• Thalidomide is a drug formerly prescribed to treat morning sickness and later found to cause serious fetal malformations
• Rh factor incompatibility occurs when the pregnant parent's blood is Rh-negative and the fetus' is Rh-positive, so the parent's body will begin to form antibodies to the foreign Rh protein which can attack the fetus' blood cells

Genital Herpes and AIDS

• Genital herpes is a common viral infection that can cause serious abnormalities if a fetus is exposed to it in the birth canal
• AIDS is a viral disease, and if it is transmitted to a fetus as HIV, it will weaken its immune system and cause death

Caesarean Delivery

• Caesarean delivery is the surgical delivery of a fetus through abdominal incision

Health terms

• Perinatal complications include difficulties surrounding the birth of a child, which can lead to developmental difficulties
• Perinatal risk factors are factors that can contribute to complications concerning the birthing process
• Preterm refers to a premature baby who still might have a birth weight appropriate to its age
• Low birth weight is a when a premature baby's weight significantly below the normal for its age
• Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an organism
• Phenotype refers to an organism's visible traits, those traits can vary even within one genotype
• Congenital refers to a trait or condition present at birth
• Autosomal dominant is an inheritance pattern where the affected person usually has an affected parent, it occurs in every generation
• Autosomal recessive is an inheritance pattern where the affected person has parents that are both carriers, and can miss generations
• X-linked dominant is an inheritance pattern where a dominant gene is carried on the X chromosome, and females are more commonly affected
• Mitochondrial inheritance occurs in both males and females, inherited through females only because all mitochondria of the children come from the mother
• Down syndrome is a condition caused by an extra chromosome, it causes different appearance and difficulties with motor & mental skills
• Klinefelter's syndrome occurs in males with an extra X chromosome (XXY), it causes infertility, breast enlargement, tallness, and learning difficulties
• Fragile X syndrome is a disorder produced by injury to a gene on the X chromosome or an atypical X chromosome, and causes difficulties in cognitive/mental abilities
• Turner's syndrome occurs in females with a missing/partly detached X chromosome, it causes different appearance and difficulties with math
• Poly-X syndrome occurs in "superfemales" or females with extra X chromosome(s), it causes intellectual disabilities
• Supermale syndrome occurs in males with extra Y chromosome(s), and causes tallness, more acne, and large teeth
• Spinabifida is a birth defect in which a developing baby's spinal cord fails to develop properly
• Neurofibromatosis (type 1) is a multiorgan disease where tumors evolve in our nervous system, caused by issues of Schwann cells/saltatory conduction
• Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited disorder in which the infant lacks a liver enzyme to metabolize an amino acid, which can cause intellectual disability if untreated, but it is easily detected & treated
• Sickle-cell anemia is a genetic disorder causing dysfunctional 'sickle-shaped' red blood cells and mostly affects black people
• Huntington disease is a hereditary disorder with brain deterioration, and difficulties with motor & psychological functions, usually diagnosed until adulthood

Behavior and Genetics

• Behavior genetics is the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
• A twin study is a behavioral study in which researchers compare the traits of twins that are identical or fraternal
• An adoption study is a behavior genetic research method that involves a comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents
• Passive genotype-environment correlations occur because biological parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a fitting environment for the child that matches the genotype
• Evocative genotype-environment correlations exist when the child's genotype characteristics affect their environment to fit the genotype
• Active genotype-environment correlations exists when a child with a particular genotype creates or seeks out a particular environment that matches their genotype
• Shared environment experiences are siblings' common experiences; such as their parents' personalities and intellectual orientation, the family's socioeconomic status, and the neighborhood in which they live
• Non-shared environment experiences include siblings' different experiences, possibly such as hobbies, friends, etc
• Epigenetics perspective on development is the idea that development interchanges between heredity and environment
• Gene x environment (G x E) interaction involves the interaction of a specific measured variation in the DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment
• Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes
• Selective breeding is a method of studying genetic influences by determining whether traits can be bred in animals through selective mating
• Kinship is the extent to which two individuals have genes in common
• Concordance rate indicates the percentage of twin pairs or other pairs of relatives who exhibit the same attribute
• Coefficient of heritability is a statistic that describes the proportion of the difference between people's scores that can be explained by differences in their genes
• Empathetic concern is a measure of the extent one can recognize & care for others' feelings
• Schizophrenia is a psychological disorder with delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or inappropriate emotional expression
• Bipolar disorder: a mood disorder in one experiences both manic and depressed episodes
• Neurotic disorder: psychological disorder with irrational thinking & behavior due to stress/anxiety

Reaction Principal

• Range-of-reaction is the idea that genotype sets limits on the range of possible phenotypes that a person might display in response to different environments

Emotions

• Emotion indicates one's feelings in response to experiences important to them
• Primary emotions are emotions that are present in humans and other animals, emerges in less than 6 months
• Self-conscious/secondary emotions appears start 18-24m, and involve feelings that require a sense of self
• Crying indicates the most important communication mechanism for newborns, caregiver response affects attachment
• Basic cry starts softly and gradually becomes more intense, it is often heard when babies are hungry or tired (3m)
• Anger cry is a variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal cords (3m)
• Pain cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a pause and gasping and is incited by intense stimuli (3m)
• Smiling is critical for infants as a key social signal and their social development
• Reflexive smile doesn't occur in response to external stimuli, happens during the month after birth, usually during sleep
• Social smile appears in response to an external stimulus, typically a face for infants, and it develops in 4-6 weeks
• Anticipatory smile includes smiling at an object and then turning to smile at an adult, it begins at 6-9 months
• Duchenne smile is a genuine smile at the mother, and it begins at 10-12 months
• Display smile happens smile usually during play
• Fear is experienced as one of the earliest emotions, typically from 6 months
• Stranger anxiety is a fear of strangers that infants commonly display, and it appears in about 7-10 months, and varies between different situations and strangers
• Separation protest: an infant's distressed crying when the caregiver leaves, and it peaks at 13-15 months
• Surprise is the emotion that begins around 2-6 months

Child Psychology

• Emotional recognition involves increased understanding, recognizing, regulating emotions
• Emotional recognition is important for peer relationships
• Caregivers can use emotional-coaching/dismissing approach
• Complex understanding of emotions, in different contexts, emotional expression & coping, and empathy
• More severe trauma may cause worse adjustment in more complex understanding of emotions
• Social orientation starts with face-to-face play with the infant, and peer interaction
• Social referencing is reading emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation
• Display rules are cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions
• Genetic-maturational view of emotional development says that emotions are products of biological factors and is supported when identical twins showing great similarity & how most babies start smiling at the same age
• Learning perspective of emotional development says that individual differences in emotion are learnt through conditioning and caregiver responses
• Functionalist perspective says that emotions are for maintaining social relationships and achieving goals
• Early weeks: cry during distress
• One month: generalized distress
• Two months: shows pleasure, smiling
• Three months: excitement, boredom, increased smiling & crying
• Four months: laughing, anger, decreased crying
• Five months: gleeful, resistance behaviors, stranger anxiety
• Six months: mirrors others' expressions, fear & anger
• Seven months: defiance, affection, shyness
• Eight months: increased individuality
• Nine months: increased negative emotions, seek comfort, recognizes self in mirror, real stranger fear
• Ten months: intense emotions, and increased understanding of mirror reflections
• Eleven months: more varied emotions, and more individualized temperment
• Twelve months: mirrors others' distress, crying during dissatisfaction, jealousy
• Fifteen months: increased mood swings, increased care towards peers, clothing preferences
• Eighteen months: possible tantrums, shyness, shame, uses adjectives for self
• Twenty one months: attempt to control negative emotions & situations, concept of good & bad
• Twenty four months: intense, increased sense of self & others' emotions, learn display rules
• 48-60 months: increased understanding of display rules
• Seventy two months: understand feeling different emotions at once
• Timeline development of understanding feeling shows that development interchanges between heredity and environment
• Emotional script involves a complex scheme that enables a child to identify the emotional reaction likely to accompany a particular sort of event
• Timeline development of understanding feeling multiple & conflicting emotions happens in phases
  • 4-6yo: one emotion at a time
  • 6-8: begin to understand feeling multiple similar emotions
  • 8-9: can describe two emotions from different situations that happened at the same time
  • 10: can describe two opposing emotions, each from a different aspect of one situation
  • 11-12: understand that the same event can cause different emotions
• Family influences on emotional development happens in phases

Parents

• Family expression of emotions: restrained/engaging, the child follows
• Family reaction to child emotions including encouraging/discouraging certain patterns
• Parents emotions can be coaching/dismissing
• Emotion coaching is an approach where parents monitor the child's emotions, view them as opportunities for teaching, and coach them in how to deal emotions effectively
• Emotion dismissing is an approach where parents teach the child to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions

Reflexes

• Reflexes includes an involuntary and sensorimotor response to external stimulation, and helps newborns survive and build up to more complex voluntary behavior later
• Bicep reflex is when tap bicep tendon, this leads to short contraction this is not in depressed babies or babies with congenital muscle disease, it is more active in earliest days and permanent
• Eye blink: bright light triggers blink/close eyes to protect eyes and this is permanent
• Patellar tendon reflex (knee jerk): tap tendon below kneecap/patella results in extend/kick leg this is not in depressed babies and it is not in babies with muscle disease, it is more active in earlier days, and permanent
• Withdrawal reflex: prick sole leads to withdraw foot, pull-up leg, bend knee

Baby Reflexes

• Babinski reflex : stroke foot bottom from heel to toes leads and this is not in babies with lower spine defects, it is a temporary, ending at almost 1 year
• Babkin/palmar reflex happens when lie on back & pressure on both palms, this leads to open mouth, close eyes, head to midline and this is temporary, ending in 3-4 months , it's not in babies with depression to CNS
• Moro reflex : sudden head drop / lower body for 6-inches / sudden noise triggers throw limbs, then bring them back to chest with clenched fists , but this is not in babies with serious CNS issues and is temporary , ending in 6-7 months
• Palmar grasp: press finger/cylinder to palm leads to grasps finger/cylinder and this is not in depressed babies and temporary reflex, ends in 3-4 months and becomes voluntary
• Plantar/toe grasp : press ball of foot leads to curls all toes.,and this is not in babies with lower spinal cord defects and is temporary, ending in 8-12 months
• Rooting response : stroke cheek leading to turn to finger and trying to suck this is not in depressed babies and is temporary, ending in 3-4 months and becomes voluntary
• Stepping reflex in upright position and move baby forward, this triggers baby making stepping movements but this is not in depressed babies this is temporary, ending in 3-4 months and becomes voluntary
• Sucking response : insert finger into mouth results in sucks finger rhythmically and its weaker in apathetic babies this is a temporary reflex and is weaker in 3-4 months, ends in 6 months
• Fixed action pattern is a complex innate behavior for an individual's survival, e.g. birds building nests, animals attacking others in territory
• Sign stimulus is an external stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern and are usually very specific
• General learning skills are general innate abilities that help humans to be flexible in learning, and includes the ability to learn through operant conditioning
• Complementing general learning skills, specific learning skills are specific innate abilities applied to specific domains depending on species

Bowlby's Theory

• Early social attachment between infant and caretaker is essential for normal psychological development emotionally and intellectually; infants use signaling behaviors to get a parent's attention.
• Infants-caretaker attachment includes a reciprocal bond between infant and parent while in unsure situations this allows comfort from pleasurable interactions
• Babies can get attached to one or more adult at months 6 through 9 that might lead to infants making 'feedback' cues for reuniting that involves crawling towards caretaker Baby features/Behaviors elicits that 'Cute' faces, babbling,smiles, voices and faces and response towards mothers odor

Attachment Styles (Bowlby & Ainsworth's)

• Influences the childs' features and the styles needed for different environments
  1. Insecure-avoidant 2.Secure
  2. Insecure-resistant
  3. Disorganized or disoriented which implies it's inconsistent The attachment types are helpful for survival due to use in different environments Parental Depress in which a relationship correlated with bonding may prove to be impaired with the child

Cognition

• Cognition implies the mental activities that correlate with using and learning knowledge
• Cognitive development requires mental changes of perceiving, attentiveness and remembering

Piaget

• Genetic epistemoligy implies Piagets and developmental studies, that is correlated with using knowledge
• In addition to which it is essential for an organisms function with adapt towards the environment
• That has cognitive equilibrium and correlation of states between the mind and state of balance
• Schema organizations of though or action that helps to interpret experience or experience
• Combine new schemes for action towards interpreting the information, all four legged animals were called dogs

Accommodation and Equilibration

• Modifying existing schemes after learning from new experiences
• Creating new experiences with existing scemes where by the child will call all the four legged animals a dog equilibrium -> assimilation -> accommodation -> organization

Stage Development

   1. Sensory motor
   2. Preoperational
   3. Concrete operational
   4. Formal operational sequence including an variant form of those tests

Infant actions that take coordinate with there surrounding environment 1. Reflex activity where infants use reflexes 2. Basic activities focus on the body where cooing sounds of the throat occur 3. They use different objects such as toys or what's close by 4. The combine what's found in common to solve and use as inside component 5. A stage of more components that leads to insight with inner experimentation

Experimental Development

• Experimental development leads to solving what seems best and known at the inner moment
• the ability to imitate that's previously lead through activity that has taken 18-24 monthly
• Constant awareness of things continue even in visibility

Mentality of child

• Children can track based on their awareness and what is partically concious
• Object permenance implies children can recognize objects even when hidden
• Infants have innate knowledge and requires testing for development and time that can determine the the mental and symbolic ability

Theory development

• theory of cognitive development where is there combined ism to help need abilities and skills and change and to create those theories that's needed for development

Preoperational Developments

• Is when infants perform thinking and complex operations but involves learning and pretend play ( 2-7)
• Ability to understand something using an image or mental word that indicates preoperational use of experiences e.g. symbolic thoughts A certain item that can also represent something else and the knowledge that an any action be preformed
• Being about represent an object, photo that can represent the picture and something else the though of believing those who have thoughts are the same and have similar thoughts when it isn't the same as the point of you
• Things like life are in preoperational stages ,such with things like the sky can be what's sad

Child's Stages

• The stage gives the capability to stay mindful and has the ability for other components to change in the long run .
• Attributions can lead too being able to learn even with things that don't make you aware to solve what can mean so much but feels less

A Childs Ability

• The process can lead to the water stating and knowing that there are equal operations
• Piaget's thoughts seem to be much harder , however can show less egotism
• The theory that an action can stop the idea from giving one direction but can assist and solve many areas

Minded Theories

• The ability to assess children by theory and mind where they know those can feel better what can stop others
• An inheritance tool that the object will look in and not understand will tell others how there supposed so seek it
• Adults can follow what behavior can indicate that actions of the sort of reasoning only seek what would bring them that understanding

Performance Based

• Executive actions and performing actions including movements what's near what is close, being competent
• Cognitive understanding is key to have to perform activities and have goals
• The concrete area indicates there's a level to operate with and is in charge of those areas and conservation
• Can decline egotism and being more reliable due to less relationships involving reasonings

Cognative Opertations

• The ability in recognizing a dimension that indicate and perform activities that show what can be the greatest or least of
• Being able to understand how to do the same thing over a longer period for actions and thought processes that the task seems nothing new
• This leads and gives the form to perform systematically and has different stages of events

Inductive Thinking

• Hypotheses that test them to do better which is know as scientist
• Other adolescents give too an audience what can gain more attention that has egosim
• Not all the time the actions are the same and that the tests are what they come off as (not completely reliable)
• The processes have many social and and cultural differences

Cognitive Skills

• Cognitive skills are helpful for communication and understanding of what we see and that what is important
• It gives and encourages the area with the knowledge to depend on what should've been the skill or goal that you can rely on

Brain Based Goals

• What can keep them or encourage those that want to get the parent figure to be able to want those things more
• Some that use or make actions and movements what that the power to give movement and discipline what can control the activity
• One that would provide the ability to better the children has led to the opportunity to learn is a way for what feels right those methods would to protect of what would be taken

Hidden Elements

• Some that protect the most needed and essential of people and what's on the top that are the greatest for actions for a business program and to lead those too stop doing of what they can

Emotional Stages

• Emotions are often described as actions and the words the provide
• Skills include the basics that come often with early learning for an object and come off with emotions