Development and Features of Monarchy

Some of the oldest recorded monarchies were Narmer, Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt (c. 3100 BCE), and Enmebaragesi, a Sumerian King of Kish (c. 2600 BCE).
Early monarchs could be hereditary or elected from eligible members.
During the High Middle Ages, Europe saw the rise of strong nation-states with powerful secular kings.
The prosperity and peace of the period encouraged the rise of these rulers.
Monarchies are found mainly in Europe because of Europe's feudal system.
Japan's shogunates were similar and contributed to its imperial system, which shares many features with European monarchies.

A monarchy is ruled by a king, queen, or emperor.
Monarchs typically gain power through hereditary succession, with power being passed down through a bloodline.
The monarch is considered the ultimate power to make law, making them the sovereignty of the state.
Most monarchs are devout followers of their country's dominant religion.
Monarchs do not have fixed terms and rule until death or abdication.

Vatican City is ruled by the Pope, the only absolute monarch in Europe.
The United Kingdom is the world's best-known monarchy.
Andorra is the only existing diarchy, ruled by two monarchs in tandem: the President of France and the Bishop of Urgell.

Communism comes from the Latin word "communis," meaning common or universal.
It is a political theory developed by Karl Marx that advocates for class war and a society where all property is publicly owned.
Individuals work and are paid according to their abilities and needs.
The modern idea of communism was first proposed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in their book "The Communist Manifesto."
Communism was a dominant economic system in Eastern Europe and Asia for many years.

Communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe.
Marx and Engels' arguments for a classless society gained popularity during the latter part of the 19th century.
Socialist critics blamed capitalism for the suffering of the proletariat, a new class of urban factory workers facing hazardous conditions.
In 1917 a group of Russian communists known as the Bolsheviks started a revolution, which led to a communist takeover of Russia and the creation of the Soviet Union.
After World War II, many Eastern European nations adopted communist systems.
During the 1940s-1960s, many Asian nations, such as China and North Korea, also adopted communism.

A classless society eliminates differences between the rich and poor.
Common ownership of all resources is crucial for a classless society.
Private property is abolished to prevent profit-driven inequality.
Social equality aims to create an egalitarian society without discrimination.
Communism opposes democracy because it allows for private organizations and market participation.

China is a prime example of a communist country.
Other examples include North Korea, Laos, Cuba, and Vietnam.
These countries don't strictly adhere to the true definition of communism but are seen as transitional between the end of capitalism and the beginning of communism.

Democracy is a government where supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly or indirectly through representation through free and periodic elections.
"Democracy is government of the people, by the people and for the people." - Abraham Lincoln
The term "democracy" originates from Ancient Greece, derived from the words "kratos" (power or rule) and "demos" (people).

A Parliamentary government is a form of government where the majority party in parliament holds governmental power.
This is a democratic form of government where the political party winning the most seats in the legislature forms the government.
The parliamentary system originated in Britain and was adopted by many of its former colonies.
It emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain between 1707 and 1800.

Nominal and Real Executives: The President is the nominal (jure or titular) executive, while the Prime Minister is the real executive of the government.
Double Membership: The Prime Minister and the council of Ministers serve as the executive branch, while the parliament serves as the legislature.
Collective Responsibility: The executive branch has a collective responsibility to the legislature.
Secrecy of Procedure: Cabinet proceedings are confidential and not publicly disclosed.
Majority Party Rule: The Prime Minister is usually appointed by the leader of the party with a majority in the lower chamber.
Bicameral Legislature: Most parliamentary democracies use bicameral legislatures.
Political Homogeneity: Council of Ministers members are usually from the same political party.
No Fixed Term: The government's term is determined by the lower house's support.

A presidential system is a form of government in which the President is constitutionally independent of the legislature.
The president leads the executive branch, which operates independently from the legislative branch.
The president is responsible for implementing and enforcing laws written by Congress.

The president plays a major role in the political process and can wield significant influence.

Real Head of State: The President is the real executive head of the government.
Single Unified Executive: The president is both the nominal and real executive.
Separation of Power: The legislative and executive branches are independent..
Superior Position of President: The president holds a superior position with concentrated power.
Head of Government as Head of State: The president serves as both head of government and head of state.

A republic is a form of government where power is held by the people, but the people elect representatives to rule on their behalf.
The term "republic" comes from the Latin phrase "res publica," meaning "public things," "public matter," or "public affair."
Governing in republics is considered a right and duty of the people, not an exclusive privilege of an elite ruling class.
In some countries, "Republican" is the name of a political party.
A "republican" government is one where the people elect politicians to represent them, while a "Republican" government is run by members of the Republican party.

Republicanism is a form of government where a state is ruled by representatives of the citizens.
Modern republics are founded on the idea that sovereignty rests with the people, although who is included and excluded from the category of "the people" has varied throughout history.