Definition of Language and Linguistic Concepts

Definition of Language

• Language is a system of signs used for communication.
• Ferdinand de Saussure is considered the father of modern linguistics, emphasizing language as an organized system.
• La langue refers to the abstract knowledge of a language (vocabulary, grammar rules).
• Parole represents the actual act of speaking or writing, using the abstract knowledge.
• Noam Chomsky proposed generative-transformational grammar, differentiating between competence (similar to la langue) and performance (similar to parole). A sentence must be grammatically correct.
• Language is biologically linked to the ability to produce speech.
• Dialects are varieties of a language distinguished by phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, often used by geographically or socially distinct groups.
• Accents distinguish varieties by pronunciation, intonation, etc.
• Idiolect is an individual’s unique language style, while ethnolect is the language of an ethnic group.
• Pidgins are simplified languages created from contact of different languages, typically lacking formalized grammar, and used mainly for communication.
• Creole languages evolve from pidgins, having native speakers and more complex grammatical structures.

Language Structure

• Lexicon encompasses vocabulary and grammar.
• Lexis is the total collection of words in a language.
• A lexeme represents an abstract unit of morphological analysis.
• Lexicology is the study of words, their nature, and meanings (relationships, vocabulary).
• Lexicography is the compilation of dictionaries.

Language Transmission

• Sign languages are independent languages with distinct systems.
• Graphology encompasses writing systems (e.g., visual signs, punctuation) influencing how language is written.
• Phonology pertains to the sound system of language—the systematic organization of sounds.

Language Use

• Personal variation in language use is affected by factors like memory, personality, and social background.
• Social factors (social class, occupation) influence language use.
• Geographic factors (geographical regions) affect language distinctions.
• Cultural conventions influence language use.
• Arbitrary relationships exist between words and their meaning (i.e., words do not inherently embody their meanings).
• Onomatopoeic words (e.g., meow) maintain some connection between word and the sound they resemble.

Language Structure (CORE)

• Morphology examines the internal structure of words.
• Allomorphs are forms of a morpheme that are pronounced differently, but have the same meaning.
• Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in a language.
• Affixes (prefixes, suffixes) modify the meanings of words.
• Some affixes can be derivational (modifying word/category), whereas others are inflectional (modifying grammatical function of a word).
• Derivational morphology involves word formation, while inflectional morphology marks grammatical changes for a word.

Language Properties

• Fixed reference means that animal signals are not learned and are limited to specific situations.
• Arbitrariness indicates there is no inherent connection between a word and its meaning;
• Productivity of language is demonstrated by the ability of language users to create new utterances.
• Cultural transmission means that language is learned and passed down through generations.
• Discreteness refers to distinct sounds in speech and discrete elements of language.
• Duality/double articulation indicates that language uses two levels: sounds without meaning and combinations of sounds that have meaning.

Aspects of Language Change

• Language use and conventions are affected by situational context.
• Speech acts are the functions an utterance can achieve (asking, stating, ordering, commanding).
• Direct speech acts have a direct meaning while indirect have a meaning beyond the literal.
• Deictic expressions depend on context for their meaning.
• Presuppositions are assumptions the speaker makes about what the listener knows.