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Questions and Answers
What is the primary aim of inflammation in response to injury?
What is the primary aim of inflammation in response to injury?
Which process involves the increase in diameter of blood vessels during inflammation?
Which process involves the increase in diameter of blood vessels during inflammation?
What is a cardinal sign of inflammation indicated by heat?
What is a cardinal sign of inflammation indicated by heat?
Which type of cells are primarily involved in the initial response to destroy the offending agent during acute inflammation?
Which type of cells are primarily involved in the initial response to destroy the offending agent during acute inflammation?
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What causes the increased permeability of capillaries during the inflammatory response?
What causes the increased permeability of capillaries during the inflammatory response?
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Which component is primarily responsible for initiating the binding of white blood cells to the endothelial cells during inflammation?
Which component is primarily responsible for initiating the binding of white blood cells to the endothelial cells during inflammation?
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What is the term for the exit of white blood cells from the capillaries during inflammation?
What is the term for the exit of white blood cells from the capillaries during inflammation?
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What role do monocytes play in the inflammatory response?
What role do monocytes play in the inflammatory response?
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What body mechanisms are activated as infection subsides?
What body mechanisms are activated as infection subsides?
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What occurs during the 'chill' phase of fever?
What occurs during the 'chill' phase of fever?
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Which of the following is NOT a disadvantage of fever?
Which of the following is NOT a disadvantage of fever?
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Which statement best defines the primary purpose of inflammation?
Which statement best defines the primary purpose of inflammation?
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What is one of the roles of the kinin system in the inflammatory response?
What is one of the roles of the kinin system in the inflammatory response?
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Which statement differentiates acute inflammation from chronic inflammation?
Which statement differentiates acute inflammation from chronic inflammation?
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What symptom indicates that the body temperature is stabilizing during a fever?
What symptom indicates that the body temperature is stabilizing during a fever?
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Which of the following is an effect of increased interferons during fever?
Which of the following is an effect of increased interferons during fever?
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What is the primary function of the kinin system in the inflammatory response?
What is the primary function of the kinin system in the inflammatory response?
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Which of the following mediators is known to enhance the effect of histamine and kinins during inflammation?
Which of the following mediators is known to enhance the effect of histamine and kinins during inflammation?
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Which activity is NOT associated with the cleavage product C5a in the complement pathway?
Which activity is NOT associated with the cleavage product C5a in the complement pathway?
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What is an important role of inflammatory exudates?
What is an important role of inflammatory exudates?
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What triggers the coagulation system during inflammation?
What triggers the coagulation system during inflammation?
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Which is NOT a characteristic of the inflammatory process?
Which is NOT a characteristic of the inflammatory process?
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Which type of cell is primarily attracted by the activities of C5a during inflammation?
Which type of cell is primarily attracted by the activities of C5a during inflammation?
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What is the role of cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in inflammation?
What is the role of cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in inflammation?
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What is a consequence of persistent inflammation over a long time?
What is a consequence of persistent inflammation over a long time?
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Which of the following is NOT an example of chronic activation of the immune response?
Which of the following is NOT an example of chronic activation of the immune response?
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What stimulates the liver to produce acute-phase proteins during an infection?
What stimulates the liver to produce acute-phase proteins during an infection?
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Which type of interferon is primarily involved in innate immunity?
Which type of interferon is primarily involved in innate immunity?
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What role do acute-phase proteins like C-reactive proteins serve during an infection?
What role do acute-phase proteins like C-reactive proteins serve during an infection?
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Which physiological change occurs in response to an increase in body temperature due to fever?
Which physiological change occurs in response to an increase in body temperature due to fever?
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What is the primary function of Gamma interferon (γ)?
What is the primary function of Gamma interferon (γ)?
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What triggers the reset of the hypothalamic thermostat during a fever?
What triggers the reset of the hypothalamic thermostat during a fever?
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Study Notes
Definition of Inflammation
- Inflammation is the complex response of the body to local injury, irritation, microbial invasion, or bacterial toxin
- Causes include microbial infection, physical agents (heat, trauma), chemical agents (acids, bases), and immunological reactions (hypersensitivity)
Aim of Inflammation
- Localize an infection
- Prevent the spread of invaders
- Destroy the injurious agent and remove it and its by-products (toxins)
- Repair or replace damaged tissue
Symptoms of Inflammation
- Calor (heat): increased blood flow to the area
- Dolor (pain): due to pressure on nerves and release of pain mediators
- Rubor (redness): increased blood flow
- Tumor (swelling): fluid accumulation in the tissue
- Loss of function: due to pain and swelling
Acute Inflammation: Blood Vessel Changes
- Increased diameter of capillaries (vasodilation): leads to increased local blood flow and redness, and a decrease in blood velocity
- Increased permeability of capillaries: allows fluid and proteins to leave the blood and accumulate in the tissue, causing swelling (edema)
- Egress of WBCs from capillaries: WBCs adhere to the endothelial cells and migrate into the tissues
Order of Cells Involved in Inflammation
- Neutrophils: first responders, destroy or remove offending agents
- Monocytes: finish debris removal and stimulate tissue repair
- Eosinophils and Lymphocytes: appear later
Three Major Events in Acute Inflammation
- Vasodilation
- Increased permeability of capillaries
- Egress (exit) of WBCs from capillaries
Inflammatory Mediators
- Lipid mediators: prostaglandins, leukotrienes, platelet-activating factor (PAF)
- Cytokines and chemokines: chemoattractant cytokines (TNF-α)
Complement Pathway
- C5a is one of several cleavage products of the complement pathway
- Roles of C5a:
- Increases vascular permeability
- Induces adhesion molecules
- Chemoattractant for neutrophils and monocytes
- Activates mast cells
Inflammatory Exudates
- Dilute bacterial toxins
- Create a physical obstruction by fibrin deposition to limit bacterial spread
- Lymphatic drainage removes antigens
Kinin System
- Activated by tissue damage
- Produces bradykinin, which causes:
- Increased vascular permeability, allowing plasma protein influx
- Pain
- Limits spread of infection
Coagulation System
- Activated by blood vessel damage
- Forms fibrin clots to prevent pathogens from entering the bloodstream
Acute Phase Proteins
- Proteins increased in concentration during infection
- Induced by endotoxin from pathogens:
- Endotoxin stimulates macrophages
- Macrophages release IL-1
- IL-1 stimulates the liver to produce more acute phase proteins
C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
- Binds to phosphorylcholine residues on bacterial cell walls
- Used as a marker of inflammation in patients' serum
Interferon (IFN)
- Antiviral agent
- Three types: alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ)
- Alpha and beta IFN: induce antiviral proteins to inhibit viral replication
- Gamma IFN: promotes phagocytosis of bacteria by neutrophils and macrophages
Complement System
- Serum proteins present in low concentration in normal blood plasma
- Complementary to the action of the immune system
Fever
- Abnormal increase in body temperature
- Caused by viruses, bacteria, or tissue injury
- Controlled by the hypothalamus, the body's thermostat
Fever Mechanism
- Bacterial products like LPS (Lipopolysaccharide) cause macrophages to release IL- 1.
- IL-1 resets the thermostat to a higher temperature.
- The hypothalamus releases prostaglandins, which enhance the resetting of the thermostat.
Fever Response
- Increase in body temperature:
- Blood vessels constrict
- Metabolism increases
- Shivering occurs
- Decrease in body temperature
- Heat-losing mechanisms (vasodilation and sweating) are activated
- Skin is warm and sweaty
Fever Advantages
- Increases antiviral effects (interferon production)
- Inhibits bacterial growth
Fever Disadvantages
- Tachycardia
- Acidosis and electrolyte imbalance
- Dehydration
- Convulsions and coma
- Death (above 44-46°C)
Chronic Inflammation
- Present when the causative agent persists or is repeatedly reintroduced.
- Leads to more tissue destruction, granuloma formation, fibrosis, and loss of function (e.g., tuberculosis).
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Description
Explore the complex response of the body to injury, irritation, and infection. This quiz covers the aims and symptoms of inflammation, including the physiological changes during acute inflammation. Test your knowledge on how the body localizes and responds to harmful agents.
