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Questions and Answers
What does the central nervous system of vertebrates consist of?
What does the central nervous system of vertebrates consist of?
Which structure is primarily responsible for regulating breathing in the vertebrate brain?
Which structure is primarily responsible for regulating breathing in the vertebrate brain?
What is the role of the efferent neurons in the peripheral nervous system?
What is the role of the efferent neurons in the peripheral nervous system?
Which part of the brain is involved in coordination and error checking of motor functions?
Which part of the brain is involved in coordination and error checking of motor functions?
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The autonomic nervous system is responsible for what type of control in the body?
The autonomic nervous system is responsible for what type of control in the body?
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What are cranial nerves responsible for?
What are cranial nerves responsible for?
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What type of matter in the CNS consists of bundles of myelinated axons?
What type of matter in the CNS consists of bundles of myelinated axons?
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Which division of the autonomic nervous system is considered to have an antagonistic effect on organs?
Which division of the autonomic nervous system is considered to have an antagonistic effect on organs?
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What is the role of the primary electron acceptor in the photosystem process?
What is the role of the primary electron acceptor in the photosystem process?
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Which of the following statements correctly describes ATP synthesis during the light reactions?
Which of the following statements correctly describes ATP synthesis during the light reactions?
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What is the initial reaction in the Calvin cycle after incorporating CO2?
What is the initial reaction in the Calvin cycle after incorporating CO2?
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What is formed during water splitting in photosynthesis?
What is formed during water splitting in photosynthesis?
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How do C4 plants adapt to lower CO2 levels?
How do C4 plants adapt to lower CO2 levels?
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In which phase of the Calvin cycle is ribulose biphosphate regenerated?
In which phase of the Calvin cycle is ribulose biphosphate regenerated?
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What energy carriers are used to produce sugars in the Calvin cycle?
What energy carriers are used to produce sugars in the Calvin cycle?
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What happens to the majority of C3 produced during Phase 2 of the Calvin cycle?
What happens to the majority of C3 produced during Phase 2 of the Calvin cycle?
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What is the primary function of water soluble hormones?
What is the primary function of water soluble hormones?
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How do lipid soluble hormones typically reach their target cells?
How do lipid soluble hormones typically reach their target cells?
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What role does the hypothalamus play in the endocrine system?
What role does the hypothalamus play in the endocrine system?
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What is a key difference between exocrine and endocrine glands?
What is a key difference between exocrine and endocrine glands?
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Which type of feedback mechanism helps to restore a pre-existing physiological state?
Which type of feedback mechanism helps to restore a pre-existing physiological state?
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Which component is part of the hormone cascade pathway?
Which component is part of the hormone cascade pathway?
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What type of hormones are included in the amines category?
What type of hormones are included in the amines category?
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What is the result of positive feedback in hormone secretion?
What is the result of positive feedback in hormone secretion?
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What type of circulatory system allows blood to be only partially confined to blood vessels?
What type of circulatory system allows blood to be only partially confined to blood vessels?
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Which organism is known to have a single circulatory system?
Which organism is known to have a single circulatory system?
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What phase of the cardiac cycle involves the heart muscle contracting?
What phase of the cardiac cycle involves the heart muscle contracting?
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What is the primary function of capillaries in the circulatory system?
What is the primary function of capillaries in the circulatory system?
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Which medical condition is characterized by a blockage of the coronary arteries?
Which medical condition is characterized by a blockage of the coronary arteries?
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What role does haemoglobin play in red blood cells?
What role does haemoglobin play in red blood cells?
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What is the main factor that influences cardiac output?
What is the main factor that influences cardiac output?
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In which part of the body is the lymphatic system's fluid returned?
In which part of the body is the lymphatic system's fluid returned?
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Which of the following plants-based chemicals can act as antioxidants?
Which of the following plants-based chemicals can act as antioxidants?
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Which of the following statements about arteries is true?
Which of the following statements about arteries is true?
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What is the main function of dermal tissue in plants?
What is the main function of dermal tissue in plants?
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Which type of plant tissue is responsible for transporting nutrients throughout the plant?
Which type of plant tissue is responsible for transporting nutrients throughout the plant?
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What is the role of the apical bud in a plant?
What is the role of the apical bud in a plant?
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Which of the following statements about roots is incorrect?
Which of the following statements about roots is incorrect?
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What distinguishes a tap root from a fibrous root system?
What distinguishes a tap root from a fibrous root system?
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Which structure is primarily responsible for gas exchange in leaves?
Which structure is primarily responsible for gas exchange in leaves?
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What is a key characteristic of collenchyma cells?
What is a key characteristic of collenchyma cells?
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What type of growth do meristems chiefly facilitate?
What type of growth do meristems chiefly facilitate?
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What term describes plant cells that can develop into a whole new organism?
What term describes plant cells that can develop into a whole new organism?
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Which structure primarily acts as a protective covering for plant roots?
Which structure primarily acts as a protective covering for plant roots?
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What kind of growth is described as being determinate in plants?
What kind of growth is described as being determinate in plants?
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Which component of the plant vascular system primarily transports water?
Which component of the plant vascular system primarily transports water?
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What type of stem is specialized for photosynthesis?
What type of stem is specialized for photosynthesis?
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What is the primary function of guard cells in leaf structure?
What is the primary function of guard cells in leaf structure?
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What is the main product of oxidative phosphorylation in aerobic respiration?
What is the main product of oxidative phosphorylation in aerobic respiration?
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Which of the following best describes the role of stomata in plants?
Which of the following best describes the role of stomata in plants?
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What effect does transpiration have on plants?
What effect does transpiration have on plants?
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Which of the following is an adaptation associated with stomatal regulation?
Which of the following is an adaptation associated with stomatal regulation?
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What is the primary function of mycorrhizae in plants?
What is the primary function of mycorrhizae in plants?
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How does root pressure contribute to water transport in plants?
How does root pressure contribute to water transport in plants?
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What is the role of the Casparian strip in plant roots?
What is the role of the Casparian strip in plant roots?
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What characterizes the function of phloem in plants?
What characterizes the function of phloem in plants?
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Which of the following nutrients is classified as a macronutrient for plants?
Which of the following nutrients is classified as a macronutrient for plants?
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What contributes to the selective uptake of nutrients by root hairs?
What contributes to the selective uptake of nutrients by root hairs?
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What mechanism is responsible for the transport of sugars in phloem?
What mechanism is responsible for the transport of sugars in phloem?
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What is the primary role of hormones in plants?
What is the primary role of hormones in plants?
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What primarily drives the upward movement of water in the xylem?
What primarily drives the upward movement of water in the xylem?
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What percentage of a plant's fresh weight is typically water?
What percentage of a plant's fresh weight is typically water?
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Study Notes
Defensive Strategies
- Organisms defend themselves to survive and reproduce.
- Gaboon Vipers use camouflage and ambush.
- Parasites live on/in other organisms.
- Microorganisms like viruses replicate quickly.
- Defence mechanisms must outweigh the costs of attack and defence.
- Bacteria have CRISPR-Cas9 defenses cutting viral nucleic acid.
- Animals may use spines, thorns or foul smells/odours.
- Constitutive defenses are always present, ex. Compounds affecting herbivores.
- Inductive defenses are produced as needed, ex. summoning natural enemies of insects.
- Camouflage is cryptic coloration.
- Poisons are produced or sequestered by animals, may be sprayed/squirted onto surfaces.
- Venomous snakes have a venom for offensive/defensive purposes.
- Snakebite antidotes are in demand.
Aposematic Coloration and Mimicry
- Warning coloration indicates unpalatability.
- Mullerian mimicry: similar appearance of multiple venomous species
- Batesian mimicry: palatable species mimics an unpalatable species
Defensive Strategies- Immune System
- Organisms must recognize invaders, viruses, and bacteria.
- Microbes reproduce within cells.
- Cells have tight gap junctions.
- Inflammatory response increases blood flow, capillaries become permeable.
- Leukocytes migrate.
- Innate immunity is poised for fast response non-specifically.
- Myeloid line cells are produced in bone marrow.
- Soluble factors include proteins and peptides (complement proteins).
- Protect the body versus viruses
- Opsonization and phagocytosis increase efficiency.
Adaptive Immune Response
- Adaptive immunity is highly specific and has memory.
- Helper T cells activate other immune cells.
- Cytotoxic T cells destroy infected cells.
- B cells mature into plasma cells producing antibodies
- Memory cells provide long-term immunity.
- Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) classes (MHC1 and MHC2) for cell-based responses
- Antibody types include IgG, IgM, IgA and IgE.
Reproduction
- Asexual reproduction needs one parent.
- Sexual reproduction needs two parents (sperm + egg).
- Budding, fragmentation and many invertebrates do it in this fashion.
- Some species exhibit semelparity (one reproductive episode).
- Some exhibit iteroparity (multiple reproductive episodes over lifetime).
Osmoregulation and Excretion
- Osmoregulation regulates solute concentrations
- Freshwater animals have adaptations to reduce water uptake.
- Excretion removes nitrogenous waste and other substances.
- Osmosis is the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
- Osmolarity measures solute concentration.
- Isoosmotic describes equal solute concentrations.
- Hypoosmotic describes lower solute concentration.
- Hyperosmotic describes higher solute concentration.
Excretory Systems
- Excretory systems regulate solute movement
- Various systems exist (protonephridia, metanephridia and Malpighian tubules).
- Kidneys maintain water and salt balance, filtering waste products.
- Filtering processes include filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion.
Nervous System
- The nervous system is the command and control centre.
- Functions include sensory input, integration, and motor output.
- Neurons are nerve cells.
- Ganglia are clusters of neurons.
- Axons transmit signals.
- Dendrites receive signals.
- Resting potentials and action potentials allow for signal transmission.
- Myelin sheaths improve signal speed.
- Synapses are junctions between cells.
- Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers.
- Electrical and chemical synapses allow for efficient communication.
Brain
- The brain is regionally specialized.
- Brainstem coordinates and conducts information between centres.
- Structures such as midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata have vital functions for vital body processes like breathing, cardiovascular and other processes.
- Cerebellum coordinates motor activity.
- Cerebrum is the largest part, responsible for high-level functions.
Endocrine System
- Animals respond to internal and external stimuli via hormones.
- Endocrine glands produce and secrete hormones.
- Hormone classes include polypeptides, amines, and steroids.
- Hormones regulate various bodily processes.
- Feedback loops regulate hormone release.
Digestion
- Animals need fuel, building blocks and nutrients.
- Digestion is the breakdown of food for absorption through various steps.
- Extracellular digestion occurs in specific compartments.
- Intracellular digestion occurs within cells.
- Key organs involved include mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines.
Respiration
- Respiration is the exchange of gases.
- Some organisms use body surfaces (flatworm), while others use specialized organs like gills or lungs.
- Key organisms and respiratory mechanisms includes flatworms, fish, terrestrial arthropods and mammals.
- Gas exchange in specialized organs increases surface area for the process.
- Counter-current flow maximizes gas exchange.
- Breathing mechanisms are driven by pressure differences.
Circulation
- Circulation provides a pathway for transport.
- Blood vascular systems have three key components; blood, vessels and a pumping heart.
- Open system blood vessels are not always fully confined, while closed system blood vessels always remain enclosed.
- Vertebrate circulatory systems (mammals, birds and fish) circulate blood via a double or single circulatory pathway.
Plant Hormones
- Plants regulate growth and development using hormones.
- Hormones act in multicellular environments.
- Different hormones have different functions (growth, development, etc)
- Some hormones are important for the survival of plant lives, while some stimulate growth, others inhibit.
Plant Nutrition and Transport
- Stomata allow exchange of gases and water.
- Transpiration is the cooling mechanism of the plant.
- Water and other substances are transported through vessels in the plant.
Photosynthesis
- Plants use light energy to make food.
- Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts.
- Light-dependent reactions capture light energy.
- Light-independent reactions use ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to sugars.
- C4 or CAM pathways are adaptations to deal with low CO2 conditions.
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Description
Explore the various defensive strategies employed by organisms to survive and reproduce. Learn about camouflage, aposematic coloration, and the role of venom and poison in defense. This quiz delves into the fascinating world of biological adaptations and their implications in nature.
