Decolonization in the 20th Century

Decolonization and Post-Independence Struggles

• Decolonization was a 20th-century process shifting empires to nation-states, involving significant political activism and often violence. This decline in empires and racial hierarchies promised freedom, dignity, and opportunity.
• Post-independence challenges included internal divisions (language, ethnicity, religion, class), and the lingering impact of empires, all while juggling Cold War pressures and establishing modern economies. Nations also had to compete with industrialized nations.
• Key events involved Gandhi's return to India (1915), Turkey's secular modernization under Kemal Atatürk, the Bandung Conference (1955), African independence movements (1957-1975), the Cuban Revolution (1959), Arab Spring uprisings (2011). Also, the end of Apartheid in South Africa (1994), and the Rwandan Genocide (1994), and Eastern European Revolutions (1989).
• Decolonization was different from earlier imperial collapses due to a strong emphasis on nationalist ideology, creating nation-states, and honoring indigenous cultures. This contrasted with a focus on cultural reclamation and global equality.
• The new independent nations fundamentally reshaped global history and politics. The principle of national self-determination inspired struggles in other regions like Latin America and Eastern Europe.

Experiments with Freedom

• Newly independent nations explored democracy but often faced coups or authoritarianism.
• Economic strategies for development varied widely and had mixed outcomes.
• Ongoing tensions existed between traditional values and modernizations, visible in places like Turkey (secularism) and Iran (Islamic revolution).

Loss of Colonial Legitimacy

• Colonial rule lost its legitimacy due to a conflict between European ideals (like Christianity and enlightenment ideas) and their colonial practices (racism, exploitation, and dictatorial rule).
• Nationalism shifted from building empires to breaking them apart.

Timing of Decolonization

• Post-WWII weakened Europe and compromised its perceived moral superiority.
• Superpowers (USA, USSR) opposed old colonial empires while establishing their own expansive systems.
• The UN became a platform for anti-colonial advocacy.

Motivations for Independence Movements

• Western-educated elites in colonies challenged colonial practices and pushed for independence.
• Veterans, unemployed youth, urban workers, traders, and rural communities throughout the colonies advocated for independence.
• Nationalist leaders (e.g., Gandhi, Nehru, Sukarno, Ho Chi Minh, Mandela) organized movements, negotiated strategies, and represented the fight for independence.
• These movements used various strategies, ranging from peaceful political pressure to armed struggle.
• Internal divisions existed among social groups within nationalist movements, leading to disagreements on leadership, strategy, and the definition of the nation.

Diverse Ideologies in Independence Movements

• Independence movements ranged from religious nationalism to secular or Marxist ideologies.
• African movements particularly focused on racial discrimination but sometimes neglected domestic class inequalities.

Comparing Freedom Struggles

• India's early independence inspired other movements, but South Africa's later independence reflected differences in struggles.

India's Freedom Struggle

• India's geographical unity was countered by cultural diversity, marked by caste, language, religion, and regions.
• British rule, while unifying parts politically, didn't erase differences in identity.
• British policies highlighted the differences between rulers and the ruled.
• British infrastructure and institutions (railroads, schools, English language) created an Indian identity among the educated class.
• The Indian National Congress (INC) initially sought inclusion within British systems rather than independence.
• Early members were elite, English-educated, and high-caste Hindus, limiting their reach to the broader population.
• Post-WWI, British repression and economic struggles spurred more assertive nationalist demands.
• Gandhi's leadership transformed the INC into a mass movement using nonviolent resistance (satyagraha).
• Gandhi advocated for self-reliant villages and moral transformation, including marginalized groups.
• However, internal conflicts arose between his vision and others, particularly regarding industrialization and religious differences.
• Religious clashes, especially between Hindus and Muslims, grew, leading the Muslim League to advocate for a separate state (Pakistan).
• Independence in 1947 meant partition into India and Pakistan, triggering horrific violence and displacement.
• Gandhi's assassination by a Hindu extremist in 1948 marked a tragic end to his attempts to maintain peace.

South Africa's Struggle for Freedom

• South Africa's fight was against a white minority despite being independent from Britain.
• Afrikaners (Boers) and British settlers held political and economic power, respectively.
• South Africa had a more developed industrial economy compared to India, creating dependence on white-controlled industries.
• Apartheid (1948-1994) institutionalized racial segregation and economic exploitation.
• Early resistance by the ANC reflected Gandhi's nonviolent approach, yielding little progress initially.
• Later, younger ANC leaders like Mandela adopted civil disobedience and ultimately, armed struggle after the Sharpeville Massacre (1960), amid growing repression.
• Internal dissent included racial and ideological divisions.

Comparison India and South Africa

• India's struggle involved British colonial rule, while South Africa's was against a white minority regime.
• India's lack of a significant settler population resistant to independence stood in contrast to South Africa.
• Both utilized nonviolent resistance led by Gandhi and Mandela initially.
• South Africa adopted armed resistance due to harsh repression.
• India's division were religious (Hindu-Muslim), resulting in partition and violence, while South Africa's was racial (black vs. white).

Post-Independence Challenges in Developing Countries

• Rapid population growth strained resources.
• High expectations for improved lives weren't always met due to scarcity.
• Diverse populations made maintaining national loyalty challenging.
• State expansion created opportunities but sometimes led to corruption and bias.

Political Experiments in Developing Countries

• Different political systems emerged including communism, multi-party democracies, one-party systems, and military regimes.
• India's success in democracy stemmed from gradual handover, a unified movement (Congress Party), and strong leaders.
• Fragile African democracies often collapsed within a decade due to internal conflicts, economic struggle, and coups.
• Military interventions were especially prevalent in Latin America during the 1960-70s due to economic inequalities.

Economic Development in the Global South

• Economic development goals emphasized growth, improvement, and more equitable distribution to boost living standards.
• The pursuit of economic independence arose from independence movements and the belief poverty wasn't inevitable.
• State-led development (China, Cuba, Turkey, India) prioritized policies like industrialization, land reform, and improvements in literacy and health.
• Market-oriented reforms led to growth but also widening inequality.
• Import Substitution Industrialization was popular in Latin America to reduce dependence on foreign goods while Export-Oriented Industrialization was favored by Asian nations for specialization in global markets.

Modernization in Turkey and Iran

• Atatürk's Turkey (1881-1938) modernized and secularized, removing Islam from public life. Reforms focused on a European model like abolishing Islamic courts and adopting a Latin alphabet. Women's rights increased.
• Iran's 1979 revolution, led by Khomeini, Islamized public life. It rejected Western influences and prioritized religious governance. Sharia replaced secular laws and religious education was prioritized. Women's rights were reduced and Islamic dress codes were enforced.

Global Spread of Democracy

• Many countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia moved towards democracy by the 2000s.

Big Picture Questions

• Colonial Experience and Independence: Colonial experience had a deep impact in the 20th century in many parts of the world; in economic development, the formation of cohesive national identities, anti-colonial alliances, and cultural reclamation.
• Comparing India and China: India's independence from British rule contrasted with China's semi-colonial experience until communism's rise in 1949. Both had distinct economic and revolutionary paths.
• Goals of Nationalist Movements (2000-2015): Movements usually targeted political sovereignty, economic independence, social equality, and cultural identity.
• Comparing Independence Movements: Parallels exist between African and Asian independence struggles and those in the Americas. However, there were differences in global context, colonialism legacies, and economic goals.

Test your knowledge on the key events and transformations that defined decolonization in the 20th century. Explore challenges faced by newly independent nations, the role of leaders like Gandhi, and significant movements worldwide. This quiz covers important milestones and outcomes of this critical period in history.