Decline of Feudalism

• From the 14th century onward, Europe experienced remarkable cultural and intellectual shifts, marking the beginning of the modern era
• The Renaissance, an awakening, promoted logic and reasoning in social and political spheres, influencing all aspects of life
• Rational and scientific inquiry, originating in the Arab world, expanded across Europe during the Renaissance, impacting the entire world
• These transformations began with the decline of the feudal system
• The module will cover changes transforming medieval into modern society and trace events to the 20th century

Decline of Feudalism

• Feudalism was a key institution during the Medieval Age in Europe, but its decline started with the rise of the middle class
• The emergence of powerful kingdoms and warfare among feudal lords accelerated feudalism's decline
• The rise of new towns and cities, along with trade revival, led to the disintegration of the feudal system
• Towns served as centers of production, governed by elected officials
• The town atmosphere was free from feudal restrictions, allowing people to freely move and choose professions
• Towns attracted rural artisans and peasants, providing better opportunities and refuge from feudal exploitation
• The towns and cities boosted the production of crops such as cotton and sugarcane
• Peasants were paid in cash for their goods.
• Manufactured goods sold in markets using money as the medium of exchange
• Lords started accepting monetary payments from vassals instead of obligatory services to purchase luxury goods and other commodities
• This led to the rise of a powerful merchant class
• Merchants wanted a higher social status
• Merchants supported powerful monarchs, weakening the feudal lords, which led to feudalism's decline
• The spread of new ideas triggered a new awakening during this period

Renaissance

• The modern period marked the end of the Age of Faith and the start of the Age of Reason
• Key events of the era include the Renaissance and the Reformation
• These events brought social, religious, cultural, intellectual, and political changes worldwide
• The era saw urbanization, faster transport and communication, equality based uniform laws, and democratic systems
• The Renaissance, meaning "rebirth," started in Italy around the 14th century AD, which was divided into small city-states
• Many city-states were built on ancient Roman ruins
• Italy's geography made its cities intellectual and trading centers
• Venice and other Italian cities were at the crossroads of trade and intellect
• People began to have leisure time for study and other activities
• Wealth and ideas were brought by merchants from distant locations
• The new political and social structure encouraged artistic, cultural, and academic progress

Economic Expansion

• The Renaissance was a time of significant economic growth
• Financial resources and commercial methods, like bookkeeping, bills of exchange and public debt, were created
• Urban life was restored, commerce was based on private capital, explorations were conducted to find new routes, nation states were formed, and vernacular literature was popularized through the use of the printing press.
• This society was less hierarchical and focused on worldly goals
• Adventures and exploration opened a global economic system
• New goods from Asia, Africa, and the Americas enriched European life
• Europeans created new ways of mass production for trade
• Bankers, merchants, and entrepreneurs collaborated and 'Capital' gained significance in political and international affairs

New Ideas

• New concepts such as humanism, spirit of inquiry, and rationalism changed the way people thought
• There was a renewed focus on the cultural achievements of Greek and Roman civilizations
• Scholars emphasized humans, believing in their capabilities and the right to seek joy
• The Medieval Church opposed worldly pleasures, which was contrary to the new ideas of the time
• Respect for humanity sparked interest in language, art, history, literature, and ethics

Expression of Humanism

• Humanism was expressed through art and literature
• Renaissance artists excelled in painting, studying the human body's proportions and anatomy
• They sought to paint human beings realistically
• Prominent artists included Titian, Botticelli, Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo da Vinci
• Sculptors created free-standing statues separate from buildings
• Donatello, who created the statue 'David', was the first great Renaissance sculptor
• The rise of nationalism in Europe came with the Renaissance and people began to free themselves from religious restrictions

European Languages

• National identities grew stronger and it was reflected in the growth of modern European languages like English, Italian, Spanish, German, and French
• Writers used local languages instead of Latin in dramas, poetry, and prose
• Renaissance texts became widely available through vernacular languages and printing presses
• People could read the Bible for themselves
• Machiavelli's The Prince, Cervantes' Don Quixote, Erasmus' In Praise of Folly, and Dante's Divine Comedy were produced in modern European languages.

Reformation

• Two major developments transpired near the end of the Renaissance
• The first was the Protestant Reformation that led to a split in Christianity
• The second was internal reforms within the Roman Catholic Church
• They are known as Counter or Catholic Reformation
• The Reformation contributed to the rise of the modern world and was part of the socio-religious and political movement

Reformation

• By the Medieval Period, the Catholic Church was known to be corrupt, greedy, and superstitious
• Peasants were convinced that the Church possessed the true Cross
• People paid to see pieces of wood from the true cross, believing the sacred relics had healing powers
• Extracting money meant the Church valued blind faith over reason
• All this would change with the Renaissance
• Renaissance means that nothing could be accepted without questioning
• Martin Luther, a priest from Germany, first challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church in 1517 AD
• Luther viewed the Bible as the only source of religious authority stating that one can find salvation through faith in Jesus Christ instead of having faith in the Church
• He also spoke out against the selling of church positions and the issuing of letters of indulgence for work regarding charity or going on crusades to the highest bidder
• The German Princes protected Luther due to his desire to take Church property, but he was excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1521 after refusing to stop opposing the Church

Protestant Reformation

• Luther's views initiated the Protestant Reformation in the West
• The Christian world became divided into Protestants and Roman Catholics
• According to Luther, Christians must follow Christ to gain salvation, not by buying letters of indulgence
• The Reform Movement in England was influenced by Lutheran ideas
• The English Reformation was a result of King Henry VIII wanting to divorce Catherine of Aragon, his first wife
• Thomas Cromwell, the King’s Chief Minister, assisted Parliament in passing the Act of Supremacy and the Act in Restraint of Appeals
• This act stated that the King was the head of the church
• The King was allowed to marry Anne Boleyn, who was a commoner

Counter-Reformation

• The Reformation became a massive religious upheaval
• A Reform Movement also transpired inside the Catholic Church
• This was known as the Counter Reformation
• It sought to improve and strengthen the Catholic Church and lower corruption
• Ignatious Loyal created the 'Society of Jesus' in Spain which emphasized chastity, charity, service to God, and missionary work
• The movement that Luther initiated spread to other countries in Europe through John Calvin, Huldreich Zwingli, and King Henry VIII in England

Development of Science

• Remarkable scientific feats were achieved during the Renaissance
• Intellectuals stressed that knowledge came through testing and observation, not blind faith
• They rejected blind faith and embraced scientific inquiry
• The Renaissance facilitated the scientific revolution
• Leonardo da Vinci's art uniquely combined science, anatomy, and observation
• Significant achievements were made in medicine and human anatomy
• Michael Servetus, who was a Spanish doctor, discovered the circulation of blood
• William Harvey, who was an Englishman, explained how the heart purifies blood and its circulation through the veins.
• The Renaissance scientists' laid the foundation for new knowledge for further research

Advancements in Astronomy

• Remarkable scientific achievements during the Renaissance were made in astronomy
• Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo were astronomers who proved the Earth revolves around the Sun
• Before the Renaissance, it was believed that the Sun revolved around the Earth
• People who opposed this belief were deemed heretics
• Copernicus stated that the Earth and other planets move around the Sun in concentric circles in his book "On the Revolution of the Heavenly Sphere"
• Kepler built on this theory, noting planets move in elliptical patterns, and argued the Sun and planets have magnetic attractions
• Isaac Newton created his Law of Universal Gravitation on this assumption
• Galileo discovered the moons of Jupiter, Saturn's rings, and sunspots with his self-made telescope
• He also verified Copernicus’ findings
• The Renaissance developed an interest in other lands

Discovery of New Lands

• Explorers discovered new lands due to curiosity
• The discovered trade routes altered the world's history
• The desire for God, gold, and glory was the driving force of these explorations
• The need for economic resources and Gold was fundamental
• Before geographical exploration, Europeans acquired goods, like silk, spices, and gems, from the East, but they had to go through the territories of the Islamic and Arabic countries for these goods
• To make the trade of goods convenient, a direct sea route to Southeast Asia was discovered due to its profitable trade potential
• The explorers' secondary motive was converting new people to Christianity as a means to serve God, while also gaining land
• Adventurers sought to become renowned by finding new areas

Adventurers

• Notable adventurers include Vasco da Gama, who discovered India, Columbus, who set out for India but found America, Ferdinand Magellan, who led the first expedition around the world, and Bartholomew Diaz
• Wealthy people and kings sponsored these travels
• Increased trade led to growth in European wealth
• Henry the Navigator of Portugal was one of the kings to sponsor these voyages
• Discoveries were grounded in new technology like the compass, astrolabe, map making, and astronomical tables
• These voyages established trading posts
• Colonial empires were established in Africa, America, and Asia
• The trade focus shifted from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean
• New commodities were added to trade such as molasses, potato, tobacco, and ostrich feathers
• It also initiated the inhuman slave trade in America
• Slaves captured from Atlantic Africa were sold to work on plantations in North America
• These new sea routes and trade routes enabled merchants to amass wealth
• The merchants invested in new machine development, leading to the coming of the Industrial Revolution, empowering them and increasing their wealth

Industrial Revolution

• The Industrial Revolution started in England around 1750 AD
• English merchants acquired wealth through overseas trade
• The colonies secured a supply of raw materials
• The colonies acted as potential markets for finished goods
• England had essential resources for industry development, such as coal and iron
• Capitalists make investments to faster the rate of production
• Machines replaced animal and human labor for increased and more efficient products
• Inventions and new machinery to improve production made society unequal
• The society was divided into the worker or the proletariat, and the capitalist or bourgeoisie
• Further readings regarding the Industrial Revolution are in the next lesson

Age of Revolution

• The European Revolution of 1848 had multiple political upheavals and countered traditional authority
• As a result of the dissatisfaction with political leaders, people were seeking more means to participate in state affairs
• The printing press popularized liberty, equality, and fraternity
• The revolutions occurred in Italy, Germany, Russia, America, and France
• Britain had already experienced a revolution referred to as the Glorious Revolution
• The United States of America would be born later as a result of the American War of Independence
• Likewise, Russia experienced the worker's movement which led to the establishment of the socialist party system and government
• Accompanying this was the encouragement of enlightened ideas and a feeling of nationalism amongst many states

Analysis of Glorious Revolution

• The Glorious Revolution occurred in 1688 England and it was an inspiration source to the whole world
• It was known as the Glorious Revolution due to avoiding bloodshed to achieve success
• The Stuart king James II did not have the support of his countries due to him being very harsh against the common people
• The people were angered by creating an expensive standing army and increasing employment of individuals serving the Roman Catholic Church in the government, armies, and universities
• Parliament eliminated King James II from the throne and favored his daughter Mary II and her husband, William III, Prince of Orange
• The constitutional form of government replaced the autocratic rule of James II.
• It showed that the Parliament had the power to change the monarch

Analysis of the American Revolution

• Key political rights enjoyed were a direct result of the American and French revolutions in the 18th century
• The revolutions had critical roles in the shaping of the modern world
• Through these revolutions, individuals asserted their rights and ended exploitation
• Many Europeans settled in America in the 16th Century due to religious persecution in England, while others sought economic opportunities
• Thirteen established colonies formed local assemblies to handle colony issues
• The British policy of mercantilism tried to regulate colonial commerce for solely British interests
• Colonies could not establish businesses
• Colonies were forced to export products like tobacco, sugar, and cotton to England for English-determined prices, sparking opposition from British-American colonies
• By the 18th Century, England's ongoing wars alongside France and India came with a large expense
• The revenue was raised from imposing taxes on the American colonies
• The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765 to tax all business actions
• The tax was used to collect revenue to afford the 10,000 British troops in America
• The Stamp Act was opposed by colonists, leading to riots breaking out in coastal port cities
• The assemblies in different colonies passed resolutions which opposed the Stamp Act
• Parliament repealed the act in 1766
• Parliament resumed a tax on tea
• In December 1773, certain Americans disguised as Native Americans boarded three East India Company ships and threw tea overboard
• This was known as the Boston Tea Party
• The Parliament closed the Port of Boston which triggered the beginning of the American War of Independence

Continental Congress

• The representatives of the 13 colonies held the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1774.
• They appealed to the King of England to not impose taxes on them
• The King declared this an act of rebellion and declared war
• The King declared this an act of rebellion and declared war
• This led to declaration of independence on July 4, 1776 at a Philadephia Congress
• This proclaimed independence from Great Britain and created a cooperative Union
• It emphasized equality, the pursuit happiness, the right to life liberties and
• It ensured freedom of press religious practice and free speech, and equality and justice laws
• The American Revolution gave the country United States of America (USA) and gave independence from Britain to the 13 colonies.

French Revolution

• 18th-century French society was feudal, with the monarch holding authority
• The First Estate of the Church, the Second Estate of Nobility, and the Third Estate of the commoners comprised three classes
• The first and second estates had luxuries over governance and religion
• The Third Estate was the peasantry, city workers, and the middle class and they're overburdened with taxes
• The environment in France fostered revolution
• Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette's bankrupt lifestyle had emptied the treasury
• Louis XVI assembled representatives of the three estates in 1789 to gain approval for new tax codes
• The third estate required tax qualities and no privileges for the primary two estates
• It was then declared as a National Assembly which took power from the Emperor
• The “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" would later be adopted as a preamble in the French Constitution of 1791 which aligned with the U.S. Declaration of Independence
• It focused on right property, education, security, freedom speech, the equality of all men, the sovereignty of the people, the right of the poor to receive public aide
• It also recognized the rights of the people to choose their government and determine the eligibility of all citizens for jobs in the public office.

Conclusion

• The Napoleonic Wars and the French Revolutionary Wars led to the creation of the French Republic that would tear down the medieval structures of Europe.
• These new ideas of liberalism and nationalism. led to the complete change of government and France became a republic.
• It's guiding principles were Equality, Liberty, and Fraternity
• The leaders were Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau
• The Italian revolution in 1861 occurred due to the American War of Independence and the French revolution
• In both France and America it influenced the concept of nationalism and Britain and Italy

Unification of Italy

• In the 18th century, many areas in Italy would still have their own monarch
• A few specific areas were the Papal states Sardinia Venetia The two places Holy Roman empire for years France fought to control italy Italian rollers sense danger and drew closer with France.
• With support of King there was an Italian republic, and they started to see a chance to be free
• Many leaders contributed to helping the people see that they will have an independent unification and from 1849 Victor Emmanuel took control with cavour ousting the Austrians.
• Rome and venice later joined.
• It started with the Congress 1815 it ended 1871 during the prussian war

Unification of Germany

• After Napoleon, Germans still wanted an independent Germany who were led by Prussia and Austria.
• William I the King Chose Bismarck and that he was fearless.
• Defied tax collecting, and Germany had an improved army

Socialist Movement and Russian Revolution

• Industrial Revolution was unfair
• Some thought society should be equal with economy
• Socialism began to take root
• Engles and Karl Marx came up with influence ideas. and that society is history _ Capitol, capitalists profits
• This brought revolution
• Russia was 1st revolution
• This led to the formation of constiutional monarchy and duma
• Even after rights, there were limits, so they continued
• 1917 another revolution
• Nicholas II did not give his peasants any rights and gave high taxes
• There wasn’t proper warm clothes and people suffered in the war
• Lead to council formation
• February tsar was imprisoned due to soviet union and provisional parliament