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Conflict Between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal

• The first half of the sixteenth century marked a turbulent period in Ethiopian history.
• Wars between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal left lasting socio-political imprints.
• The Oromo population movement and the Jesuit interlude also defined this era.
• Conflicts over two centuries, primarily for controlling the trade route through Zeila and levying tribute, escalated into a war of conquest culminating between 1529 and 1543.
• The Adal Sultanate gained new leadership under Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (called "Gragn" in Christian sources).
• Imam Ahmed was likely born in Hubat in 1506, raised by Muslim kin, and began his career as a soldier under Garad Abun ibn Adash.
• Imam Ahmed assumed leadership against the sultan after Garad Abun was killed in 1525, expanding the opposition's influence, and overthrowing Abu Bakr in 1527.
• Battles were fought to address environmental pressure on the Afar and Somali pastoralists seeking better pastureland in the highland Christian Kingdom.
• Lowland Muslim pastoralists expanded to higher plateaus due to increased population and overgrazing.
• The underlying conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities intensified, resulting in infighting among pastoralist groups.
• Imam Ahmed mobilized various groups, including the Afar, Somali, Argobba, Harla, and Harari, by unifying them against the Christian Kingdom.
• In 1527, Imam Ahmed launched an offensive, seizing Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya, and Kambata, aided Muslim communities who welcomed his governors.
• Emperor Lebne-Dengel mobilized a large force in 1528, encamping near modern-day Addis Ababa.
• Imam Ahmed's smaller army dispersed the Emperor's numerically superior force at the Battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529.
• The Christian Kingdom's army faced logistical and strategic challenges, while Imam Ahmed's army had better mobility, flexible tactics, and unified command.
• Imam Ahmed's army gained control over Lasta, Bagemedir, Dembiya, and Tigray within two years.
• By 1535, Adal dominated a significant portion of Christian territory and established a civil administration with recruited personnel.
• Mahfuz's daughter and Imam Ahmed's wife, Bati Del Wanbara, encouraged and accompanied him throughout his expeditions.
• Lebne-Dengel retreated and died in 1540.
• His successor, Gelawdewos, faced a more intense war after Imam Ahmed received two hundred Muslim Turkish musketeers and ten cannons in 1541.
• In response to Lebne-Dengel's request from 1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers led by Christopher da Gama arrived in 1541.
• The Portuguese aimed to protect a strategic ally against the Ottoman Empire but were defeated at the Battle of Wafla in 1542, where Christopher was captured and potentially beheaded
• Surviving Portuguese soldiers joined Gelawdewos to fight.
• Imam Ahmed, confident after Wafla, sent his musketeer home.
• In February 1543, Imam Ahmed was killed at the battle of Zantara, ending the Adal conquest and control over the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom.
• Emperor Gelawdewos restored Christian territories in the northern and central plateau in two years.
• Gelawdewos attempted to reorganize the chewa regiments.
• Gelawdewos was killed and beheaded in 1559 by Emir Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid of Adal.
• Emperor Minas conducted campaigns against the Turkish-backed Bahre Negash Yishaq.
• Territories along the coast, including Dabarwa, were reclaimed.
• Emperor Sartsa-Dengel neutralized Bahre negash Yishaq and regained territories from the Turks.

Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies

• Portuguese and Ottoman interventions reflected political ambitions around the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.
• Portugal and the Christian kingdom did not form an actual military alliance.
• The EOC weakened after the conflict, which sought revival.
• Christian Kingdom rulers saw an alliance with Roman Catholicism as a tactic to restore lost territories using modern weaponry.
• Diplomatic and military relations were attempted between Portugal and the ‘Kingdom of Prester John’ under King Manuel I and Joao III.
• Jesuit missionaries arrived in Ethiopia in 1557 to promote Catholicism.
• The Jesuits' Catholic doctrine taught distinct divine and human natures of Christ, contradicting the tewahedo theology of the EOC.
• EOC believed that Christ had a perfect human nature inseparable from the divine, through union or tewahedo.
• Mission leaders included Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez, and Alfonso Mendez.
• The Jesuits began with Emperor Gelawdewos, hoping other would follow suit
• Gelawdewos listened and debated with the missionaries of EOC.
• Jesuits were inactive in the hostile courts of Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who were dealing with internal and external challenges.
• Jesuit Pedro Paez had relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who favored Catholicism, but was overthrown by Yaeqob.
• Jesuits had a serious impact on the reorganization of the Ethiopian monarchy in the early seventeenth century.
• Emperor Susenyos (r. 1607-32) aimed to consolidatepower by introducing new Oromo recruits.
• He was challenged by provincial governors, Oromo, and Bete-Israel.
• To consolidate authority he sought an external alliance, and got diplomatic support of Paez.
• Susenyos converted to Catholicism in 1612, which became state religion in 1622.
• Anti-Catholic voices arose due to changes in liturgy and practices.
• Jesuit Mendez ordered reconsecration of EOC priests/deacons, suspension of Old Testament customs and prohibition of preaching in Ge'ez.
• Reforms led to revolts by clergy, nobility, and loyal followers like Fasiledes (r. 1632-67).
• Jesuits' success in conversions was short-lived. and caused civil war/political disintegration.
• Emperor Susenyos abdicated as a result, and Fasiledes restored the EOC.
• Fasiledes expelled Jesuits and punished converts like Se'ela Kristos. and councilor Azazh Tino.
• Fasiledes introduced a "closed-door" policy, which isolated the country from all Europeans for over a century.
• He made an accord with the Ottoman pasha at Suakin and Massawa to block Europeans from entering the Horn.
• The Jesuit intervention triggered divisions in the EOC, divided into sects during the Zemene-Mesafint.
• The tewahedo doctrine of hulet lidet taught two births of Christ
• Qibat (Unction) branched from the hulet lidet doctrine, accepting the eternal birth as the only birth.
• Sost Lidet taught that Christ was born in eternity and in the womb of St. Mary as anointed being.
• These divisions persisted until the Council of Boru Meda (1878), and had political implications for regional rulers with the aim to dominate.

Population movements

• Population shifts shaped the Horn's history because of 'push and pull' factors with natural and social causes.
• Medieval movements resulted in change of cultures/identities.
• Movement of the Argobba, Afar, Somali was caused by military conflict between the Christian Kingdom/Sultanate of Adal. Territories were affected by ongoing conflict.
• Argobba’s Origins: Descendants of Prophet Muhammad's followers.
• The Afar inhabited northeastern Ethiopia and northern Djibouti.
• They had the indigenous governance system known as makabanto.
• Ibn Said described them occupying the lowland territory near Bab el-Mandeb in the 13th century.
• Drought forced the Afar to reach the middle Awash by the sixteenth century.
• The Afar established sultanates like Awsa and Tadjourah after the Adal Sultanate collapsed.
• Awsa Sultanate succeeded the Awsa Imamate (est. 1577), declined in 1672
• It was re-established by Kedafo around 1734, under the Mudaito Dynasty.
• Awsa’s economy depended on the Bati-Ginda'e trade route and became a learning center led by preachers.
• The Somali practiced pastoral economy.
• Historically, a Shir governed the society based on democracy
• Ibn Said mentioned Merca as a major urban center of Somalis in the thirteenth century.
• The Somali assisted the Imam Ahmed.

Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

• The Gadaa system was an Oromo institution for social organization, administration, defense, and economy.
• Origin: Evolved from earlier Cushitic age-set.
• 8 years = 1 Gadaa period. 40 years = 1 generation. Earliest Gadaa eras = Bidiri Dhoqqe
• Gadaa was interrupted and restored due to internal and external factors.
• Democracy in power sharing every 8 years.
• All Lineage, Clan representation
• Socialization, Education peace maintenance
• System with institutions, egalitarian relations
• Sons joined grade at 40 years

Table 1: Age-Grades and their roles (Oromo Gadaa system)

• Dabballe (birth-8 years): Socialization and education.
• Gamme (9-16):
• Folle (17-24): Training and agriculture
• Qondala (25-32): Military service.
• Raba-Dori (33-40): Candidates for political power.
• Luba (41-48): Leaders of Gadaa government.
• Yuba I (49-56): Advisors, educators, ritual Leaders
• Yuba II (57-64): Leaders
• Yuba III (65-72):
• Yuba IV (73-80):
• The Luba had power for 8 years. with Abba- Gadaa the leader
• Those included Abba Bokku, Abba Chaffe, Abba Dula
• Abba Muda assisted those in power
• Women maintain rights by Sinqe institution.
• Women and Wife’s power

Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

• Population increase, land needed for lives
• Christian & Muslim fight for land for people, to leave.
• From 1522- 1618 under 12 of class of Gogessa / gadaa.
• The Melba (1522-30) fought Bata Amor Led by Fasil And bale.
• The Kilole (1538–46) Controlled Darwa after defeating the Christians.
• Gada Center: Oda Nabee of Tulama Oda Roba of Kiko Mando.
• Gadaa leader include : Dawe of Borana Anna of Woji.

Ethnic and religious interaction and integration

• Territories and Religious Expands By Orthodox Church.
• Fight, caused expanse of Isal.
• The movement led To Control Large Territory.
• Oromo Into Integration
• Oromo apply 2 Integration ways: Guddifacha Moggasa.
• The Interaction result from the Change Ins.

Peoples and States in the East

• The Emirate of Harar
• Emirate of Harar –.
• Strengthen by amirs.
• Authority to people Oromo Somali with the Islamic Way.

Peoples and States in Central and south central parts

• The kingdom of Shewa
• The kingdom of Shewa –By Negasi Kristos
• The second ruler was Merid Azmaich Sebestie.
• In 1718 -45. By Amaha Iyesus
• Asfa Wosen Ruled from 1705 -1808. Ruled The territory.
• The place of the Kingdom Based Agriculture
• Gurageh: classified as the Western Gurage with out a ruler
• Yajoka Qicha among the Sabet Bet And the Gordnna Sera among the Kistane.
• Silteh: the movement has help there.
• Hadiya
• -Population of the Hadiya became hetero. after the AD, the Oromo.
• Zara Yaqob To Hadiya princess Ite Zan.
• Kampta With 4 Origin
• In Kambatoo -By 1550 To Form.
• HALBA to the Territory.

People and states in the south

• Sidama: The Sidama indigenous system of led by the Mota ruler.
• Halale Had No EForce
• The Gedeo:

5.5.4 People and State in the Southwest

• Wolayita. Tigray Dynasty
• The place flours in the 18 and 19
• Yemaa Hal-Mom Gummus Was rule at the time:

Dawuro

• Dawuro : Clan : Mulla DOgila Area.
• Kati In 17oo. Dawuro with Fortress.
• Dawuro Basic way.
• Gamo: Set set of inter Indigenous Called Woo.
• Ari society organized by ten.
• The chief power.

Kafa

• Kafa emerged 14c but after the 17c got in Contact.
• The tato were 7 Advisors Called.
• Andancha Politics of The kafa.. Enset.
• The Major Good Kafa Gold Silver.

People And State In west

• Anwa People Along the Place.
• Manjo origin Is Plate
• The Nuer Lived place in the Upper Nile of Sudan .

Berta Gumuz

• The contact trade With Sundae Land. Gold to Area.
• Kurma: Inhibit Western Eritera.

The Gondar and Zemane Mesufnt

• People cultural point.

Gondar The Royal Place.

• The Good Time Of The Gondor
• The Period in 1706, Great Time to make more

6. Cultrual Time for The Gondar Time Period.

Build Secular Like Castle.

• Emperor Sartasa Did the building time, and during the rule of Sartsa Dang.
• Bouth of the case construction
• Emperors Did Like Bridge the Place Alasa
• Distinct way to Get More from second of 16c
• The painting the good time of the past

6.2 the Zemene Mesafnt

• The time of prince 17. from that time
• Yaju Was power and reach The most
• The Major features the: Inter Regional
• Good amount of area with depen.

Making ofModern Estate

• The main who was that kess hail
• Dejauch was half brother
• Hail And His son

Yohanise the Son With Many

• 1889. Was Appitited Governor of Tograry Aftera
• Temporary Range Hail to the Area.
• Succes and imperial expansion most to win most good because access more power
• Expansion by divided to three phases.
• The force the army to do
• 80. Number With the number of this