Curriculum: Definitions and Concepts

Fundamental Concepts of Curriculum

• Curriculum originates from the Latin word "curere" and refers to the oval track used for Roman chariot races
• The New International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of a course in an educational institution or by a department
• The Oxford English Dictionary defines curriculum as courses taught in schools or universities

Definitions of Curriculum

• Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes that focuses on systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences for continuous & willful growth in personal social competence (Tanner, 1980)
• Curriculum is a written document systematically describing goals, planned objectives, content, learning activities, and evaluation procedures (Pratt, 1980)
• Curriculum components include the contents, concepts and tasks of a subject, planned activities, desired learning outcomes, and experiences, which creates a product of culture and an agenda to reform society (Schubert, 1987)
• Curriculum encompasses all experiences that a learner has in a program of education to achieve broad goals based on theory, research, and professional standards (Hass, 1987)
• Curriculum can be viewed through traditional or progressive lenses

Robert M. Hutchins' Traditional View

• Curriculum should focus on permanent studies rooted in grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic, and mathematics for basic education
• Basic education should emphasize the 3 R's (Reading, Writing, 'Rithmetic) while higher education should emphasize liberal education

Arthur Bestor's Essentialist View

• The school's mission should be intellectual training
• Curriculum should emphasize fundamental intellectual disciplines like grammar, literature, writing, mathematics, science, history, and foreign languages

Joseph Schwab's Disciplinary View

• Curriculum should focus on disciplines such as Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, and English
• Academic disciplines are humanities, sciences, languages, and mathematics in college
• The word "discipline" as a ruling doctrine for curriculum development originated with them

Phillip Phenix's Knowledge-Based View

• Curriculum exclusively consists of knowledge derived from various disciplines

Progressive Points of View

• The focus should be on experiencing education - application is used to test reflective thinking to unify curricular elements (John Dewey)
• Curriculum encompasses all the experiences children have with teacher guidance (Holin Caswell & Kenn Campbell)
• Curriculum is a sequence of potential experiences set up in schools to discipline children and youth in group settings (Othaniel Smith, William Stanley, & Harian Shore)
• Curriculum includes all classroom experiences planned and enacted by teachers, as well as what students learn (Colin Marsh & George Willis)

General definition

• Curriculum includes subjects and content that schools teach that follows a program of studies
• Curriculum is what is taught inside and outside of school directed by the teacher, as well as activities planned by the school, experiences and the total learning under teacher guidance

Fundamental curriculum concepts

• Curriculum as a cumulative tradition of organized knowledge
• Curriculum as an experience
• Curriculum as an instructional plan or outcome

Curriculum Levels

• Societal Level = a curriculum in which stakeholders (politicians, specialists, administrators etc) participate in identifying goals, topics, and materials
• Institutional Level = curriculum derived from the societal level with modification by local educators, often organized according to subjects and includes topics, themes, standards, philosophies, lesson plans, and teaching guides
• Instructional Level = refers to how teachers use and modify the curriculum that involves the teacher's instructional strategies, styles, and materials
• Experiential Level = the perceived and experienced curriculum by each student, influenced by individual differences

Curriculum Foundations

• The psychological foundation is anchored on the learners' characteristics and desirable conditions for learning
• Psychology unifies the learning process and serves as a basis for methods, materials, and activities

Major Learning Theories (Behaviorism)

• Learning occurs through trial and error, with positive outcomes reinforcing behavior and negative outcomes discouraging it (Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect)
• Learning occurs through association where a neutral stimulus can trigger a response when paired with a natural response (Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning)
• Learning occurs through rewards and punishments to strengthen or weaken behaviors (B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning)

Major Learning Theories (Cognitive)

• Children go through four cognitive development stages (Jean Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development)
• Stages: Sensorimotor (0-2 years) = learning through senses/actions, Preoperational (2-7 years) = developing language/imagination but struggles with logic, Concrete Operational (7-11 years) = understands logic/problem-solving, Formal Operational (12+ years) = abstract thinking
• Learning occurs through experience and education focusing on interactive real-world problems (John Dewey)
• Learning is building new knowledge based on previous knowledge using an active discovery process (Jerome Bruner's Discovery Learning)

Phenomenology

• People are motivated to fulfill basic needs before personal growth and self-actualization (Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs)
• Hierarchy includes Physiological Needs, Safety Needs, Love/Belonging Needs, Esteem Needs, and Self-Actualization Needs
• Learning happens best in an environment where students feel valued, understood & accepted (Carl Rogers' Person-Centered Approach)

Values Clarification

• Education should help students identify, understand, and reflect on their personal values (Louis Raths)

Behaviorism & Curriculum

• Curriculum should be organized for student success/mastery using a prescriptive and diagnostic approach
• Use step-by-step procedures to break down curriculum into units with sequenced tasks and reinforcement

Cognition & Curriculum

• The cognitive approach provides a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning rooted in subject matter
• Educators should be trained in cognitive approaches for better understanding

Phenomenology & Curriculum

• Phenomenologists view the individual in relation to their field
• Learning theory is rescued from narrow behaviors and overemphasis on cognitive processes

Philosophy

• Philosophy influences goals, aims, content, organization of curriculum, beliefs, and values to impact content and activities

Differing Education Views

• Traditional = objects that train mind with liberal arts and science to build intellectual power with readymade experience, hence education conceived as instruction
• Progressive = contribute subject with science, liberal, and practical arts to develop the individual through problem-solving, meaning, acting, hence education is creative/self-learning
• Traditional = intellectual development makes for good citizenship, whereas progressive knowledge and discipline is used to exercise freedom with morals and useful skills and direct experience in a democratic living

Individuals & Society

• Follow traditional modes of learning and preparing curricula by grouping homogeneously to accept roles by rigorously emphasizing their education (Traditional)
• Develop own learning modes using a flexible curriculum that stresses non-conformity, individuality, and creativeness through learner segregation (Progressive)

Workers

• Emphasize vocational education alongside of the liberal arts (Traditional & Progressive)

Curriculum Characteristics

• Fixed/absolute subject matter is important for future application (Traditional)
• Subject matter is immediate use (Progressive)

Implications of Curriculum & Philosphy

• Idealism = upholding truths through religious values
• Realism = established principles, theories and things based on essential subject matter and application
• Pragmatism = think about how to think by developing insight/understanding for application

Creative Exploration

• Develop creativity through reflective and critical thinking in a child-centered learning environment
• Apply understanding of stimulating/practical subject matter

Existentialism

• Free the child to be themselves by choosing by believing what to learn No need for course guides and outlines
• Learners set personal identities

Perennialism

• Ends of education are fixed and "absolute and universal with science drawing from wisdom/classical sources and separate study

Essentialism

• Essential skills (3Rs, English, Science, History, Math, and Foreign Language
• Educate the competent person

Progressivism

• Focus on student interest
• Use application to human problems
• Interdisciplinary
• Student projects and activities

Reconstructionism

• Curriculum remakes society and change through pupil analysis and analysis of issues by developing patterns

Learner-Centered Design

• Emphasis on all-around growth of learners with meaningful, immediate use to learn dynamically as parts integrate as a whole to blend
• Focus the integration of content and learners' interests

Subject integration

• Subject matter selection is based on learners' needs and cooperative interaction is a must with flexible scope/sequence (Learner, Teacher, Parents)

Learners' Skills

• The learners are encouraged to use problem-solving skills and to set own tasks while integration is promoted from a developed on-going process

Types of Designs

• Include activity, child, experience, process, and humanistic based designs

Child-Centered Design

• Child-centered design for normal, "custom-made" activities with no advance planning (as supported by Pestallozi, Froebel, Dewey, and Rouseau)
• Large use of motivation with learners who actively participate - it's based on experiential and not rote learning

Designs contd

• Draw on experience and knowledge of learners from experience to teach
• Active engagement with a teacher-supported environment helps learners to learn through doing
• Emphasis on learners and teaching
• Experience centered design focuses on the environment with self-created learning and integrated activities with emphasis on intelligence and a teacher to guide.

Personal Attribues

• Process-oriented design focuses on personal attributes, skills & traits to serve learners in the world
• Emphasis well-balance the cognitive of affective to develop thinking and communication

Humanistic Design

• Learning is the ultimate goal and it focuses on the thinking/feeling and doing of a development with self actualization
• Supported by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

Community

• Problem-centered design emphasizes problem-solving and bases the goal for social action to integrate subjects with society

Cultural Problems

• Life-situations utilize experience to focus on analysis of living with student and the processes and functions of life with the intent on improving society

Social Problems

• The emphasis on needing a set of learning experiences for society is necessary within common-based issues
• The study focus is universal with all in mind and knowledge

Dynamic Process

• Development connotes changes in alteration, modification, or improvement to be progressive and linear through steps

Curriculum development

• Curriculum development is a dynamic process between people that connotes changes that are purposed to produce development
• Should be step-by-step and logical to plan by vision, mission, belief, design, translate for intended outcomes
• The curriculum design involves what to use, the organization, activity, experiences to assess, resources, and learning

Technical view

• Action must transpire in the classroom to have the intended learnings by following a technical guide
• Evaluation determines where implementation supports with introduced measurements, that is very important for decision making and planning

Several views

• Several curriculum approaches reflect developers with views of philosophy, history, psychology, & domain knowledge by approaching development in all and non methods
• Oldest approach that's behavioral must be rational and prescriptive for a means and end approach
• This follows the Rationale model which asks about should be sought, experiences provided, how it is organized, and what needs to be attained
• In the grassroots approach, learning objectives are to be determined by the expected society and implemented/evaluated

Managerial System

• System-managerial emphasizes what managers the education/leadership input

Academic Approach

• Academic emphasizes the importance of theory for curriculum design to focus the thoughts of insights

Human Approaches

• Human Approaches that focus for non teachers and group works through by emphasizing the learning emphasis
• Existential views that emphasize what can free society and free the individualism and self expression
• A social agent change that must implement internationalization and pluralism

Stakeholders

• Stakeholders is made by what can influence for the development and what each base does to what it has
• Each curriculum is who the school and community that needs the basics

Types and Purpose

• The stakeholder group select what can emphasize for effectiveness
• Administrator supervise the teachers with the resources for effective delivery
• The parent will provide and support with prioritizing that can set

Community Based Publishers

• Provide instructional materials to be developers with a curriculum process which can be used for planning
• The community can also dictate a curriculum purpose
• The planned curriculum relies around how community assesses needs to improve the way things should be to be effective

Goals

• Goals are what determines what scope an education can do and what it values and can define
• Can be different levels