115 Questions
What does twin studies suggest about the influence of genetic variation on personality traits?
Genetic variation strongly influences variability in personality traits
Why does the shared environment between twins or other siblings raised together seem to have rather small effects on personality traits?
There is relatively little variability within a culture in the way parents raise their children
How do cross-cultural studies contribute to understanding environmental influences on human behavior?
They reveal environmental influences that are shared by people of the same culture, but are different between people from different cultures
Why might there be a weak effect of the shared environment on personality traits?
There is relatively little variability within a culture in the way parents raise their children
What can large environmental differences between nations help with?
Detecting environmental influences on human behavior
Why might parenting not produce variation in personality traits even if it influences personality?
If all parents followed the recommendations of few books, it would not matter who the actual parents are.
What do some cultures with negative attitudes towards strangers do to influence shyness?
Warn children about speaking to strangers and keep them away from strangers.
What do cross-cultural studies reveal about environmental influences?
Environmental influences that are shared by people of the same culture, but are different between people from different cultures.
What is one explanation for why there is a weak effect of the shared environment between twins or other siblings raised together?
There is relatively little variability within a culture in the way parents raise their children.
How do large environmental differences between nations contribute to understanding human behavior?
By making it easy to detect environmental influences on human behavior.
What did Bond and Smith (1996) find in their study?
A correlation between individualism and the percentage of participants who conformed to group pressure
What did the replication study in Japan by Takano & Sogon (2008) find?
No difference between Japanese and US samples in conformity to group pressure
Why did the text mention that conformity rates in the Asch paradigm are fairly low?
Because the correct answer is evident
What was one problem identified with the Asch paradigm according to the text?
Conformity rates were fairly low due to the evident correct answer
What were participants from individualistic cultures expected to do in the Asch experiment?
Conform less to the opinion of a group
What were participants from collectivistic cultures expected to do in the Asch experiment?
Conform to the group and provide wrong answers to maintain harmony
Why did Bond and Smith (1996) find a correlation between individualism and conformity?
Because individualistic cultures value independence and autonomy
What was a limitation of Bond and Smith's (1996) study?
Small sample size of non-Western participants (k = 16)
What is one reason mentioned for the mixed evidence regarding cultural influence on conformity?
Limited number of studies with non-Western samples
Why might more ambiguous situations produce different results in conformity studies?
Ambiguity may lead to increased reliance on group opinions
What did Hofstede's nomothetic studies of cultures published in the 1980s distinguish?
Individualistic and collectivistic cultures
What do most cross-cultural psychology studies rely on to distinguish populations?
Nationality
How are cultural differences studied using a variable-centered approach?
By comparing different cultures to understand behaviors, thoughts, and feelings
What did the first nomothetic studies of cultures published in the 1980s by Hofstede focus on?
Distinguishing individualistic and collectivistic cultures
What do individualistic cultures tend to be according to the text?
'Western' cultures
What is culture defined in terms of?
Shared beliefs, values, and social practices of a population
What do cross-cultural psychology studies benefit from?
Comparing many cultures rather than just two
How are cultural differences studied using a culture-centered approach?
By focusing on shared beliefs, values, and social practices within a population
What do most cross-cultural psychology studies rely on to distinguish populations?
Nationality
What did Hofstede's nomothetic studies of cultures focus on?
Distinguishing individualistic and collectivistic cultures
What is one of the problems encountered in examining cultural differences in personality traits using Big Five questionnaires?
Difficulty finding items equally valid across different cultures
Why can the use of adjectives like 'sociable' be problematic in examining cultural differences in personality traits?
Some languages may not have equivalent trait adjectives
What is one reason provided for the lack of absolute comparison standard for personality traits across cultures?
Cultures may have their own subjective norms or reference points for traits
What did 84% of US Americans and 78% of Hong Kong Chinese choose in a scenario related to bill payment?
'Separate checks' and 'split the bill equally' respectively
Why might the item 'I enjoy loud parties' be problematic in assessing personality traits across cultures?
'Loud parties' may not be common in all cultures
Why do cultures having their own subjective norms or reference points for traits pose a challenge in cross-cultural comparisons?
It makes it difficult to establish universal personality traits
What is an advantage of studies that measure actual behaviors in controlled laboratory situations or hypothetical scenarios?
They provide a more standardized assessment across cultures
Why is it challenging to use the item 'I enjoy loud parties' as a universal indicator of personality traits?
'Loud parties' may not be universally enjoyable
What does the comparison between a cold day in Canada and a cold day in Rio de Janeiro illustrate about cultural differences?
Cultural differences impact perceptions of typical behaviors and environmental factors
How do cultural differences impact the validity of items like 'I enjoy loud parties' when assessing personality traits?
They limit the universality of such items as indicators of personality traits
What do individuals in individualistic cultures have stronger relationships with, possibly due to more leisure time?
Fantasy and feelings facets of openness
What are individuals in individualistic cultures associated with, as indicated by wealth and household size?
Lower scores on five of the six Neuroticism facets
What do 70% of US Americans prefer for the last question?
Uniqueness
What did 94% of HK Chinese participants select in the second question?
Loyalty
What did recent protests in Hong Kong indicate about the importance of values to the people in the region?
The importance of individualistic values
What did comprehensive projects comparing 56 and 55 nations report national differences along?
'The Big Five personality dimensions'
What did convergent validity across the 36 overlapping nations for the Big Five traits indicate?
Modest correlation, with zero correlation for openness to experience
What do individuals in individualistic cultures have stronger relationships with, possibly due to more leisure time?
'Fantasy and feelings facets of openness'
What are individuals in individualistic cultures associated with, as indicated by wealth and household size?
'Lower scores on five of the six Neuroticism facets'
What did 83% of HK Chinese participants choose for the last question?
'Activities with friends'
What stereotype does the weak positive relationship with self-efficacy align with?
Western children have high confidence in their abilities
What is the relationship between conscientiousness facets and individualism?
Two facets show a strong negative correlation with individualism
Why is individualism considered a better predictor of specific facets rather than the Big Five traits?
Facets are closer to the actual traits that influence behaviors
What percentage of the variance in personality traits varies between nations according to studies?
Up to 10%
'Cultural background has low cue validity' implies that:
'Cultural background is not a good predictor of individuals’ personality traits'
Why might the influence of culture on personality be underestimated?
Some variation within cultures is measurement error
What practical implications do the results of cross-cultural studies of personality have?
Cultural stereotypes may get the mean difference in actual personality traits right, but cultural background has low cue validity to predict individuals’ personality traits.
Why do cross-cultural studies report how much of the variance in personality scores varies between nations versus within nations?
To understand the influence of culture on personality traits
What does the statement 'People from the same culture do not have the same personality traits' imply?
'Cultural influences vary among individuals within the same culture'
What is the term used to describe the hypothesis that culture influences personality because individuals learn to act in culturally desirable ways?
Acculturation hypothesis
What is the selection hypothesis based on?
Creating environments that favor specific genes
What does the text suggest as a potential influence for extraversion in modern Western cultures?
Finding spouses and having children
What does the text propose as a third possibility for the relationship between culture and personality traits?
Genetic differences shaping cultures
What does the large increase in global migration provide an opportunity to test?
'Acculturation hypothesis'
What does the selection hypothesis assume about immigrants according to the text?
They are genetically different and differences remain even in the second generation.
What is suggested as a potential reason for why culture influences personality according to the text?
Individuals learn to act in culturally desirable ways.
What is one possible way culture might influence extraversion according to the text?
By creating environments that favor specific genes.
What is proposed as a potential influence for individualism according to the text?
Culture influencing personality traits.
What does the selection hypothesis suggest about cultural environments?
They favor specific genes.
What is one reason provided for why national differences in personality could occur according to the text?
Culture influences personality because individuals learn to act in culturally desirable ways.
What does the text propose as a potential influence for individualism according to the acculturation hypothesis?
Extraversion being more desirable in individualistic cultures.
What do longitudinal studies on the influence of migration on personality and behavior face?
Difficulty in tracking changes over time
What do most acculturation studies rely on to measure exposure to a new culture?
Acculturation status
What did a study on acculturation from Chinese to Canadian culture find differences in?
Individualism-collectivism
What did a comparative study on four groups of Canadians find decreases in with increasing acculturation?
Neuroticism and certain facets of Conscientiousness
What do genetic differences between populations not mean for personality traits?
They cannot be attributed to cultural groups
What do studies suggest about North Americans' self-ratings compared to reality?
They tend to rate themselves more positively than they actually are
What does systematic differences in rating biases between cultures make difficult?
Finding real personality differences
What did a study at the University of British Columbia find about classroom participation among East Asian students?
Significantly lower participation compared to other groups
What is mentioned as an alternative explanation for lower participation among East Asian students?
Language barriers and potential biases in classroom dynamics
What do acculturation studies indicate about cultural differences with increasing acculturation?
Cultural differences decrease, suggesting that culture shapes personality traits.
What is mentioned as a challenge in studying the influence of migration on personality and behavior?
Difficulty in tracking changes over time due to ethical challenges and rare opportunities for longitudinal studies.
What was a disadvantage of using Internet surveys for studying cultural differences in empathy and perspective taking?
Not being representative in countries with English as a second language and limited Internet access
What correlation did the original article report between empathy and individualism?
-.25
What did the replicating study find as a notable correlation for the trust facet?
.2
What did the replicating study find as a correlation with household size?
.34
What did the replicating study not replicate regarding wealth as a measure of individualism?
-.25 correlation with empathy
What was the advantage of using Internet surveys for studying cultural differences in empathy and perspective taking?
Producing large samples
What was the only notable correlation observed in the replicating study for the Big Five measure?
.2 correlation with trust facet
What did the original article report as moderate correlations with agreeableness?
-.25 correlation with individualism
What was observed for the trust facet in the replicating study?
.2 correlation with trust facet
What is proposed as a better predictor of homicide rates than individualism-collectivism?
Income inequality
What did the study find as a stronger predictor of cultural variation in homicide rates than income inequality?
History of slavery
What was observed as the only notable correlation with the trust facet of the Big Five measure?
Agreeableness
What did the original article report as a negative correlation with empathy?
Agreeableness
What is suggested as a possible explanation for higher empathy in countries with larger households?
Empathy is needed to get along in larger groups
What was found to be a poor predictor of national differences in homicide rates?
Low agreeableness and conscientiousness
What is mentioned as a potential influence for higher homicide rates in former slave-states in the United States?
Discrimination against indigenous and former slave populations
What is suggested as a way to disentangle various factors influencing cultural variation in aggression and homicides?
Examine cultural changes over time
What did the study find as a better predictor of cultural variation in homicide rates than climate?
History of slavery
What advantage do historic studies have over cross-cultural studies in studying personality change?
They hold the genetic composition of a population constant over time
Why do historic studies rule out genetic explanations for changes in personality over time?
Genetic changes from one generation to the next are minimal
Why is there a lack of good data to study personality change in the 1960s?
Few studies measured personality traits at that time
What did historic studies examine with regards to personality change before the 1980s?
Personality change for extraversion and neuroticism
What was the consistent age group of participants in historic studies examining personality change?
Undergraduate students
Why can historic studies be seen as advantageous for studying cultural influences on personality?
They provide a way to study cultural influences on personality by examining changes over time
Why is it mentioned that genetic explanations for changes over time can be ruled out?
Genetic changes from one generation to the next are minimal, hence ruling out genetic explanations for changes over time.
What did the study of Dutch students who completed a Big-Five questionnaire when they entered university show?
An increase in extraversion over time
What did the study with Finnish men drafted to the military show?
An increase in extraversion facets over time
What do the results of the studies on personality change and twin studies suggest about the learnability of extraversion?
Extraversion can be learned to some degree, but there are limits to the amount of change
What did the cultural theory of gender differences in agreeableness predict regarding women's assertiveness?
Women's assertiveness decreased after gender norms changed dramatically in the 1960s
What is suggested about introverts in modern cultures?
[They] have a good life without changing their personality
What was observed regarding women's assertiveness from World War II to the 1990s?
It fluctuated with increases and decreases over different periods
What do the results of the studies on voluntary personality change and twin studies indicate about the possibility of changing personality traits?
There are limits to the amount of change in personality traits despite some learnability
What did one study find regarding changes in extraversion from 1966 to 1993?
A consistent increase was observed during this period
Study Notes
Cultural Influence on Personality Traits
- Culture influences language, clothing, music, and food preferences in an increasingly connected world.
- The chapter explores cultural influence on personality traits like the Big Five and their facets.
- Another chapter examines cultural differences in personality characteristics such as values and attitudes.
- Culture is defined in terms of shared beliefs, values, and social practices of a population.
- Not all members of a population share all beliefs or social practices, but cultures are differentiated based on prevalence.
- Most cross-cultural psychology studies rely on nationality to distinguish populations, but regional cultural differences within countries exist.
- Few studies have examined personality traits across a wide range of cultures.
- Cultural differences can be studied using a culture-centered approach or a variable-centered approach.
- The variable-centered approach requires comparisons of different cultures to understand behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.
- Cross-cultural studies benefit from comparing many cultures rather than just two, similar to increasing participants in a study to find the true relation between two variables.
- The first nomothetic studies of cultures were published in the 1980s by Hofstede, who distinguished individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
- Individualistic cultures are Western cultures, while others tend to be more collectivistic, with the United States scoring the highest on individualism.
Cultural Differences in Personality Traits
- In the second question, 72% of US Americans chose an independent thinker, while 94% of HK Chinese participants selected loyalty.
- For the last question, 70% of US Americans preferred uniqueness, whereas 83% of HK Chinese participants chose activities with friends.
- Notable cultural differences in preferred options exist, and there is variation within groups, with no 100% agreement among participants from the same culture.
- Recent protests in Hong Kong indicate the importance of individualistic values to the people in the region.
- Comprehensive projects comparing 56 and 55 nations have reported national differences along the Big Five personality dimensions.
- Convergent validity across the 36 overlapping nations for the Big Five traits was modest, with zero correlation for openness to experience.
- Culture influences specific traits (facets) rather than the Big Five traits, with different measures and samples yielding very different scores for nations.
- Individualistic cultures, as indicated by wealth and household size, are associated with lower scores on five of the six Neuroticism facets.
- Individuals in individualistic cultures are more impulsive than those in collectivistic cultures, possibly due to differing social norms.
- People in individualistic cultures are more extraverted, with higher warmth and assertiveness, and no clear explanation for the lack of relationship with excitement seeking.
- Individuals in individualistic cultures have stronger relationships with fantasy and feelings facets of openness, possibly due to more leisure time.
- There are no strong relationships between individualism and agreeableness, with weak relationships being unstable and possibly not replicable in other studies.
The Influence of Culture on Personality and Behavior
- The acculturation hypothesis predicts that personality differences become smaller or disappear in the second generation born and raised in a new culture
- Longitudinal studies on the influence of migration on personality and behavior are rare and challenging
- Most studies are cross-sectional, correlating personality with acculturation status, which measures exposure to a new culture
- A study on acculturation from Chinese to Canadian culture found differences in individualism-collectivism
- Comparative study on four groups of Canadians found decreases in Neuroticism and certain facets of Conscientiousness with increasing acculturation
- A recent study replicated cultural differences for these facets with European and Asian US students
- Acculturation studies indicate that cultural differences decrease with increasing acculturation, suggesting that culture shapes personality
- Genetic differences between populations do not mean that personality traits can be attributed to cultural groups because it ignores variation within cultures
- Studies suggest that North Americans are prone to rate themselves more positively than they actually are, creating rating biases
- Systematic differences in rating biases between cultures make it difficult to find real personality differences
- A study of classroom participation at the University of British Columbia found significantly lower participation among East Asian students, indicating potential cultural differences in extraversion
- Alternative explanations for lower participation among East Asian students include language barriers and potential biases in classroom dynamics
Explore the influence of genetic variation on personality traits as suggested by twin studies. Delve into the limited impact of shared environment on personality traits, possibly due to the minimal variability in parenting practices within a culture.
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