Critical Thinking in Psychology - PSY 179

Critical Thinking in Psychology

• The course PSY 179 covers critical thinking in psychology, focusing on logical fallacies and cognitive biases.
• Today's topics include common logical fallacies in reasoning and cognitive biases and their impact on thinking.

Introduction to Cognitive Biases and Logical Fallacies

• Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment, influencing decisions and perception.
• Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the argument's logic, often persuasive but misleading.
• Understanding these concepts is important in psychology for developing critical thinking and avoiding errors in judgment.
• Fallacy is an argument that contains a mistake in reasoning, not the same as a factual error. Fallacies can be structural, content-based, or violate the Principle of Rational Discussion.

Fallacies of Relevance and Insufficient Evidence

• Fallacies of relevance are mistakes in reasoning where premises are logically irrelevant to the conclusion.
• Fallacies of insufficient evidence are mistakes where premises are logically relevant but don't provide sufficient evidence to support the conclusion.

Personal Attack (Ad Hominem)

• Ad Hominem attacks the person instead of the argument.
• Literally means "against the person", it's similar to name-calling.

Post Hoc (Cause and Effect)

• Post Hoc fallacy attributes a cause-and-effect relationship without adequate evidence. It's similar to hasty generalization.
• Example: A person's car broke down after a friend borrowed it, falsely concluding the friend caused the problem.

Hasty Generalization

• Hasty generalization makes sweeping statements based on insufficient or biased evidence.
• Example: A person hires three business students who are lazy and concludes that all business students are lazy.

Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question)

• Circular reasoning supports a statement by repeating it in different words.
• Example: My mother is always busy because she has too much to do.

Appeal to Authority

• Appeal to authority uses celebrities or experts to support a claim, but their opinion doesn't necessarily make it true.
• Example: A celebrity endorsing a product, a doctor recommending a healthcare product.

Appeal to Emotions

• Appeal to emotions persuades by using negative or positive emotions, rather than evidence.
• Example: Politicians' speech using emotionally charged language to sway voters.

Appeal to Ignorance

• Appeal to ignorance asserts a claim is true because no one has proved it false, or vice-versa.
• Example: "There must be intelligent life on other planets, no one has proven that there isn't".

Fallacy of False Alternatives (False Dilemma)

• Presents only two options when more exist, creating a false dilemma.
• Example: "Either we elect a Republican as president, or crime rates will skyrocket."

Slippery Slope

• Claims a seemingly harmless action will lead to a disastrous outcome without sufficient evidence.

Straw Man

• Misrepresents an opponent's argument to make it easier to dismiss.
• Example: Distorting someone's viewpoint to make it appear illogical.

Bandwagon (Appeal to Popularity)

• Argues a claim is true because many people believe it, or vice versa.
• Example: "Everyone else is doing it."

Cognitive Biases

• Mental shortcuts (heuristics) that simplify complex situations but can lead to errors like cognitive biases.
• Examples include: Availability, Anchoring, Confirmation, In-group bias, Framing, Media bias, and AI bias

Common Cognitive Biases

• Availability: Relying on readily available information to make judgements. Example: Fear of sharks because of numerous reports in the news.
• Anchoring: Over-emphasizing first pieces of information presented to make decisions. Example: First price of an item influences perceived value
• Confirmation: Favoring information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.
• In-group bias: Favoring one's own group
• Framing: How information is presented affecting perception. Example: 20% fat vs. 80% fat-free.
• Media Bias: Media coverage can exaggerate or selectively cover information.
• AI bias: AI systems can reflect underlying human biases.

How to Avoid Biases

• Remain open-minded, actively listen and build awareness to avoid biases.
• System 1 thinking (intuitive) versus System 2 thinking (rational). Promote system 2 thinking (e.g., critical analysis).
• Recognize that biases exist in psychology science as well, including in researchers, interviewers and processes used.
• Sampling bias, interviewer bias, research bias.

Summary & Key Takeaways

• The abundance of information online can heighten vulnerability to cognitive biases like availability, confirmation, and framing.
• Employing critical thinking principles helps recognize and counter these biases.