Critical Thinking and Scientific Method
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Questions and Answers

In the context of scientific thinking, why is it important to consider what you don't see, in addition to what you do see?

  • To simplify complex problems by focusing only on directly observable evidence.
  • To reinforce initial observations and strengthen existing hypotheses.
  • To identify potential biases and hidden variables that might affect outcomes. (correct)
  • To confirm personal beliefs and disregard contradictory information.

What characteristic distinguishes science from other human endeavors, regarding the handling of mistakes?

  • Science attributes mistakes to individual failures rather than systemic issues.
  • Science actively seeks, identifies, and corrects its own mistakes. (correct)
  • Science avoids making mistakes by adhering strictly to established protocols.
  • Science readily accepts mistakes and does not attempt to correct them.

How does the example of Albert Einstein illustrate the nature of scientific progress?

  • It exemplifies that in science, evidence-based correctness can supersede status and prior achievements. (correct)
  • It demonstrates that scientific authority is based on personal connections and reputation.
  • It shows that established scientists are always given more credibility, regardless of evidence.
  • It highlights that scientific debate is won through popularity and convincing rhetoric.

A researcher conducts a study on the effects of a new teaching method but only publishes results that support its effectiveness. What aspect of scientific integrity is the researcher neglecting?

<p>The researcher is undermining the self-correcting nature of science by not presenting a full picture. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why should one approach reports and findings in scientific literature with critical thinking?

<p>To identify potential flaws, biases, or alternative interpretations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central idea presented regarding the scientific method's effectiveness?

<p>The scientific method, while powerful, is limited by inherent human biases in interpreting evidence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Sir Francis Bacon contribute to the development of modern science?

<p>He identified specific biases that undermine critical thinking. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does the text compare human behavior to that of an armadillo?

<p>To illustrate how ingrained, instinctive reactions can become detrimental in altered environments. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, which factor most significantly hampers critical thinking when evaluating evidence?

<p>The inherent human inclination to confirm existing beliefs and overlook contradictory information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What underlying assumption does the content make about human cognition?

<p>Human cognitive processes are suited to ancestral environments but can be maladaptive in modern contexts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the content suggest regarding educational programs designed to improve critical thinking skills?

<p>Their effectiveness is limited, suggesting the difficulty in overcoming ingrained biases. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement summarizes a key premise about using empirical evidence?

<p>Using empirical evidence requires critical thinking to avoid biased interpretations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Sir Francis Bacon's approach to science differ from previous methods?

<p>Bacon structured a method emphasizing empirical evidence and awareness of cognitive biases. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What initial action do people take when presented with evidence that supports their pre-existing beliefs?

<p>They readily accept the evidence as further validation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the study involving the girl named Hannah, how did participants' pre-existing beliefs about her background influence their assessment of her academic abilities?

<p>Participants who believed Hannah was from an affluent family rated her performance more positively. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do personal preferences and prejudices affect our interpretation of evidence?

<p>They can distort our view of evidence, leading to wishful science (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the study about the death penalty, how did the participants' initial views on the subject influence their interpretation of mixed evidence?

<p>Participants saw what they wanted to see, reinforcing their original views. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one way in which beliefs and desires shape our view of evidence?

<p>By influencing the standards to which we hold different kinds of evidence (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the text suggest about the standards people apply when evaluating evidence that supports their beliefs versus evidence that contradicts them?

<p>They apply lower standards to evidence that confirms their beliefs. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do people's social circles typically influence their beliefs and desires?

<p>They tend to validate existing beliefs, creating an echo chamber. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What searching behavior does the text attribute to people when seeking evidence related to their beliefs and desires?

<p>They preferentially seek confirming evidence and stop searching when they find it. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the text imply about the interpretation of evidence?

<p>Most evidence allows room for interpretation, where beliefs and desires play a significant role. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary rule of critical thinking does the text emphasize, given our tendency to see what we expect or want to see?

<p>Doubt your own conclusions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the best ways to find the truth about the world?

<p>Seeking out and listening to people with differing perspectives (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information provided, how do Facebook 'echo chambers' affect a user's perspective?

<p>They reinforce existing beliefs, limiting exposure to contrary information. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which question do we tend to ask ourselves when evaluating evidence that contradicts our beliefs, according to the text?

<p>&quot;Must I believe this evidence?&quot; (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might differing survey questions impact the relationship between education and happiness?

<p>Different questions might yield different answers, influencing conclusions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it challenging to doubt your own conclusions?

<p>Because people often reinforce each other's views, making it hard to find challenging perspectives (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do scientists often share their findings with colleagues who are likely to disagree with them?

<p>To achieve a more balanced perspective on their conclusions and identify potential flaws. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central point of Francis Bacon's story about the Roman temple?

<p>People often overlook the evidence that is not immediately visible or presented. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Bacon identify as 'the greatest impediment and aberration of the human understanding'?

<p>The failure to consider invisible or missing information. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the study involving trigrams (three-letter combinations), what critical difference was observed when participants were asked to identify the 'special' trigram?

<p>Participants learned to identify trigrams with a specific letter much faster than those lacking a specific letter. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What general principle does the example of businesses providing testimonials from satisfied customers illustrate?

<p>Considering only positive testimonials can be misleading without acknowledging the views of dissatisfied customers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion might someone draw from the bar graph showing hours spent partying at Canadian universities, and why might that conclusion be incorrect?

<p>Universities with more partying are less academically rigorous, a conclusion that could be wrong if study habits aren't considered. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to examine the scatterplot showing the relationship between hours spent partying and studying, in addition to the bar graph showing hours spent partying?

<p>The scatterplot reveals whether there is a correlation between partying and studying, which the bar graph does not show. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the WWII planes, what critical insight did Alexander Wald provide regarding the bullet hole data?

<p>Focusing solely on bullet holes in returning planes neglected the crucial information from planes that did not return. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key question should one ask to apply critical thinking in evaluating claims or evidence?

<p>&quot;What information is not being presented, and why not?&quot; (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the example of the WWII planes and the advice of mathematician Alexander Wald teach us about data analysis?

<p>Missing data can be more informative than the data that is present, and ignoring it can lead to incorrect or dangerous decisions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of considering 'what you don't see' relate to the scientific process?

<p>It prompts scientists to be aware of potential biases and missing evidence that could affect their conclusions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential consequence of ignoring the rule to consider what you don't see, as highlighted in both the trigram study and the university partying example?

<p>Drawing erroneous conclusions and making poor judgments based on incomplete information. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best summarizes the relationship between critical thinking and the consideration of missing evidence?

<p>Considering missing evidence is a fundamental component of critical thinking, essential for avoiding biased or incomplete conclusions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the principle of considering 'what you don't see' apply to evaluating marketing and advertising claims?

<p>It encourages consumers to seek out independent reviews, compare alternatives, and be skeptical of claims that seem too good to be true. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Consider a study concluding that students who study at least 3 hours per day achieve higher grades. What 'missing evidence' should a critical thinker consider before accepting this conclusion?

<p>The methods of studying employed, the students' prior knowledge, and the difficulty of their courses. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Scientific Method

A method for discovering facts about the natural world, developed by Sir Francis Bacon.

Empirical Evidence

Evidence gathered through observation or experimentation.

Critical Thinking

Analyzing evidence in an unbiased way and considering the whole truth.

Cognitive Biases

Natural tendencies that once helped us survive but are now detrimental.

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Confirmation Bias

The tendency to perceive what aligns with our expectations or desires.

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Ignoring Unseen Evidence

The tendency to overlook information that is not immediately obvious or available.

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Anchoring Bias

Flaw in thinking where one relies too heavily on pre-existing information.

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Bacon's Insight

Bacon believed natural human inclinations are enemies of critical thinking.

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Science's Self-Correction

Actively seeking to identify and correct errors in observations and reasoning.

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Science as a Democracy

Everyone, regardless of status, can challenge claims with evidence.

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Psychological Science

Psychological science uses the scientific method to study human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

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Critical Stance

Approach claims with curiosity, skepticism, and a commitment to careful evaluation of evidence.

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Skeptical Inquiry

The practice of questioning what is directly observed and considering what may be unseen or overlooked.

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Wishful Thinking Bias

The influence of one's desires and emotions on the interpretation of evidence.

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Selective Exposure

The tendency to selectively seek out information that confirms one's beliefs.

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Biased Evidence Evaluation

Evaluating evidence confirming your beliefs with lower scrutiny and disconfirming evidence with higher scrutiny.

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Echo Chambers

Social environments where individuals primarily encounter information reinforcing existing beliefs.

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Doubt Your Conclusions

Actively questioning your own conclusions and assumptions.

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Seek Opposing Views

Seeking perspectives from people who hold differing views from your own.

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Attitude Polarization

The effect where initial attitudes become more extreme after considering mixed evidence.

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Wishful Science

The use of emotion and desire rather than objective evaluation when exploring science

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Search Stopping

Looking for evidence until you find something that confirmed your beliefs.

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Preferential Search

The action of looking for information that you already agree with.

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Opinions

Beliefs or opinions that a person holds

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Desire for correctness

The notion that humans prefer to be correct.

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Human understanding

Someone's ability to see accurately .

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Conclusion

A conclusion or resolution after consideration

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Criticism in Science

Sharing results with disagreeing colleagues to achieve a balanced view and self-worth.

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Ignoring Invisible Evidence

Focus on the evidence we can see and neglecting the evidence we can't.

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Erroneous Conclusions

Drawing conclusions based only on available evidence, ignoring what's missing.

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Consider Missing Evidence

Actively consider what information might be missing or not immediately apparent.

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Testimonials and Bias

Testimonials might not show the complete picture if negative feedback is missing.

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Partying vs. Studying

There is no relationship between them.

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WWII Plane Armouring

Focusing solely on damage on returned planes, but neglecting to look at the planes that crashed.

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Wald's Insight

Concentrating armour on the undamaged spot of the planes that did not return.

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Presence vs. Absence

The tendency to focus on the presence of something rather than its absence.

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Survivor Bias

Collecting data on survivors without considering those who didn't survive.

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Balanced Perspective

Gathering a holistic view by seeking contrasting viewpoints.

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Incorrect Assumptions

The error of thinking that partying is inversely proportional to studying.

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Alexander Wald.

Refugee mathematician who saved WWII pilots.

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Latent evidence

Evidence that is not readily apparent or easily observed.

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The truth.

To confirm reality seek confirmation bias.

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Study Notes

  • In 1620, Sir Francis Bacon published "Novum Organum," detailing a new method for discovering facts about the natural world.
  • The "Baconian method" is now known as the scientific method.
  • The scientific method has facilitated more learning about humanity and the natural world in the last four centuries than in all previous centuries combined.
  • Critical thinking involves questioning whether evidence has been interpreted without bias and whether it represents the whole truth.
  • Research indicates that most people struggle with critical thinking.

Natural Human Tendencies

  • Natural human tendencies that once served humans well in hunter-gatherer societies may no longer be beneficial in today's complex societies.
  • Sir Francis Bacon argued that the tendencies to see what we expect/want and to ignore what we can't see are major obstacles to critical thinking.

Seeing What We Expect and Want to See

  • People often draw different conclusions from the same evidence due to pre-existing beliefs.
  • Beliefs can color views of new evidence, causing individuals to see what they expect.
  • A study showed that participants who believed a girl named Hannah was from an affluent family rated her academic performance more positively than those who believed she was from a poor family, even when watching the same video.
  • Views of evidence are also colored by preferences, prejudices, ambitions, aversions, hopes, needs, wants, and dreams.
  • People tend to believe what they want to be true.
  • Participants in a study who initially supported the death penalty became more supportive after seeing evidence, while those who opposed it became more opposed, regardless of the evidence presented.
  • Facebook users often create "echo chambers" by sharing information primarily with like-minded individuals.

Standards of Evidence

  • People hold different types of evidence to different standards.
  • Evidence confirming existing beliefs is often assessed with "Can I believe this evidence?", while evidence disconfirming beliefs is assessed with "Must I believe this evidence?".
  • People tend to search for evidence that confirms their beliefs and desires.
  • When confirmatory evidence is found, the search tends to stop, but when contradictory evidence is found, people keep searching.
  • Because it is easy to see what we expect or want to see, the first rule of critical thinking is to doubt your own conclusions.
  • Seeking out and listening to those with differing views is one of the best ways to find truth.

Not Considering What We Don’t See

  • People rarely pay attention to what is missing, and this natural tendency can impede human understanding.
  • A study showed participants could not identify that trigrams lacking the letter T were "special", but could identify trigrams containing the letter T.
  • The second rule of critical thinking is to consider what you don’t see.

Erroneous Conclusions

  • Ignoring missing evidence can lead to drawing erroneous conclusions.
  • A bar graph showing partying habits at Canadian universities led to incorrect assumptions about Queen's University until study habits were also considered.
  • During World War II, mathematician Alexander Wald advised armoring plane engines rather than fuselages, considering the planes that didn't return and the missing bullet holes in their engines.
  • If the first rule of critical thinking is to doubt what you do see, then the second rule is to consider what you don’t see.

The Skeptical Stance

  • Humans make mistakes in science, but scientists actively seek to discover and correct these errors.
  • Science invites examination and challenges to conclusions, and scientists strive for accuracy and rigor.
  • Science is the ultimate democracy, where anyone, regardless of background, can challenge established ideas.
  • Albert Einstein's victory in a scientific debate was due to his correctness.
  • Chapters in textbooks serve as reports from psychological scientists, using the scientific method to uncover truths about human existence.

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Explore critical thinking and the scientific method rooted in Sir Francis Bacon's "Novum Organum." Understand how natural human tendencies can impede objective analysis. Learn to question biases and seek comprehensive truths for effective critical thinking.

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