Critical Thinking About Causality
50 Questions
0 Views

Choose a study mode

Play Quiz
Study Flashcards
Spaced Repetition
Chat to Lesson

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What is suggested about attractiveness and personality based on the dating experiences described?

  • Physical attractiveness and a beautiful personality are considered mutually exclusive. (correct)
  • Nice individuals are more often attractive than those who are not.
  • Attractiveness and personality are often positively correlated.
  • People generally prefer attractive partners regardless of personality.

What concept relates to conditioning on a third variable in causal diagrams?

  • Causal inference
  • Collider bias (correct)
  • Invariance principle
  • Correlational assumption

Which of the following statements about causal inference in quasi-experimental research is NOT true?

  • INUS conditions are irrelevant in understanding causal relationships. (correct)
  • Research designs can differ in how they handle counterfactual reasoning.
  • Causal inference can be derived from correlational data.
  • Threats to causal inference must be explicitly identified.

What is the primary focus of a causal diagram when discussing third variables?

<p>To visually represent possible biases introduced by conditioning. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes a condition that is necessary but not sufficient for an outcome in causal reasoning?

<p>INUS condition (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a counterfactual imply in causal reasoning?

<p>It suggests an alternative scenario that could have happened. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of John Stuart Mill's criteria for causality?

<p>Harmfulness (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main assertion made regarding correlation in relation to causation?

<p>Correlation does not imply causation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly identifies the primary error in mistaking correlation for causation?

<p>Neglecting to consider possible confounding variables. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of a causal diagram in understanding causality?

<p>To clearly define assumptions and identify potential confounding variables. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What issue does Foster (2010) identify in developmental psychology regarding causality?

<p>Authors often confuse correlation with causation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of causal reasoning errors, what do counterfactuals refer to?

<p>Hypothetical situations that could occur under different circumstances. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the statement 'smoking doesn't kill' fail to address in causal reasoning?

<p>The overwhelming evidence of smoking's dangers. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates the concept of 'priority' in causality?

<p>A person developing a cough after smoking a cigarette. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might initiation intensity relate to familial preferences according to the diagram presented?

<p>Families at the corps may or may not like being alone depending on the initiation intensity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the causal diagram effectively allow researchers to do?

<p>Specify assumptions and identify confounds in their research. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'exclusivity' in causation emphasize?

<p>Avoiding any alternative explanations for the outcome. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'beautiful personality' relate to dating perceptions mentioned?

<p>There is often a believed trade-off between physical and personality attractiveness. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of causation, what can be inferred about the relationship between smoking and lung cancer?

<p>Smoking is a significant risk factor but not the only cause. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant threat to causal inference in research according to the provided material?

<p>Existence of confounding variables. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one possible outcome of ignoring causality in reports?

<p>Both B and C. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cause in the context of a third variable affecting the relationship between two other variables?

<p>A variable that distorts the apparent relationship between the two variables (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which diagram is helpful in recognizing mediators, common causes, and colliders?

<p>A Causal Diagram (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Berkson's paradox, what does conditioning on a collider imply?

<p>It introduces a spurious association between two variables (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a mediator as per the given content?

<p>Birth defect influencing child mortality (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Monty Hall problem, what does conditioning on the door that the host opens illustrate?

<p>A hidden collider effect (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a common effect (collider) reveal about two independent variables?

<p>It falsely correlates the two independent variables (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of gender on admission outcomes according to the Berkeley admissions paradox?

<p>Gender serves as a mediator affecting the admission likelihood (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines a mediator in causal relationships?

<p>A variable that influences the effect of one variable on another (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the relationship between self-esteem and problematic academic achievements?

<p>Improving self-esteem can lead to a disappearance of problems like drug abuse. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'post hoc ergo propter hoc' refer to in the context of causality?

<p>It denotes that one event must precede another to establish causation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the criteria for establishing causality?

<p>Causation is proven only if X precedes and is necessary for Y. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of eye movements, what is the primary cause of poor reading skills?

<p>Abnormalities in oculomotor skills leading to more fixations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately represents the concept of exclusivity in causation?

<p>Without X, Y cannot occur. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does low self-esteem correlate with issues like drug abuse or teenage pregnancy?

<p>Low self-esteem is a common factor that influences these issues. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'inversion of cause and effect' indicate?

<p>Without X, Y does not exist in any form. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement addresses the complexity of identifying a single cause for an event?

<p>Often, there are multiple factors that can be involved in causing one event. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do lower-class students potentially become more socially isolated according to Meehl's explanation?

<p>By being perceived as lower-class and rejected from groups. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor is posited to mediate the relationship between social activity and schizophrenia?

<p>Social skills acquisition (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'common cause' imply in the context of causal relationships?

<p>X and Y share a common cause Z, resulting in spurious relationships. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates a 'collider' in causal inference?

<p>Rain causes both wet lawns and increased sprinkler usage. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of correlational analysis, what does conditioning on a collider suggest about the relationship between variables?

<p>It may induce dependence between X and Y. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary assumption when deciding whether to condition on a third variable in causal analysis?

<p>The relationship among variables requires substantiation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios represents a confounder in causal inference?

<p>Age influencing both health and exercise levels. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does conditioning on a confounder have on the perceived relationship between two variables?

<p>It controls for extraneous variability. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a causal diagram, what does the term 'confound' refer to?

<p>An external variable that affects both X and Y, leading to biased estimates. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes 'spurious' relationships?

<p>Relationships that appear to be correlated but are actually influenced by external variables. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a mediator do in a causal relationship?

<p>It clarifies the pathway between an independent and a dependent variable. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of social activity and schizophrenia, how does Meehl theorize class influences this relationship?

<p>Lower social activities in lower classes increase the risk of schizophrenia. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What bias can arise when conditioning on colliders?

<p>Positive bias leading to overestimation of effects. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Causality

The idea that one event or factor directly leads to another, establishing a clear relationship between cause and effect.

Necessary Cause

A factor that is essential for a particular outcome to occur. Without the cause, the effect won't happen.

Sufficient Cause

A factor that alone is sufficient to produce a particular outcome. If the cause is present, the effect will always happen.

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

A common misconception where people assume that because one event happened before another, the first event must have caused the second.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Inversion of Cause and Effect

Mistakenly reversing the cause and effect relationship. Assuming the effect is the cause, and vice versa.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Contributing Cause

A factor that influences or contributes to an outcome, but is not the sole cause.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Multiple Causation

The idea that multiple factors can work together to cause a particular outcome.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Single Cause Fallacy

The belief that a single cause is responsible for a complex outcome, overlooking other potential influencing factors.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is a counterfactual?

A counterfactual is a statement that considers an alternative scenario where one aspect of the past is changed, leading to a different outcome.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Counterfactuals in different designs

In research designs, counterfactuals help analyze what might have happened without the intervention. For example, comparing a treatment group to a control group.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Threats of causal inference

Threats to causal inference are factors that can undermine the accuracy of drawing a causal link between variables. These can include confounding variables, selection bias, and measurement error.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Causal Diagram: Specifying Assumptions

A causal diagram visually represents relationships between variables. It highlights direct and indirect causal pathways, helping identify potential confounders.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Causal Diagram: Identifying Confounds

A causal diagram can help identify potential confounding variables. These are factors that influence both the presumed cause and the outcome, making it seem like one causes the other when it may not.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Causal Diagram: Applied

Causal diagrams are applied to identify potential biases in research and suggest strategies to control for them. They help researchers make more accurate causal inferences.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Beyond 'correlation does not imply causation'

Correlation does not imply causation means just because two things happen together, it doesn't mean one causes the other. There might be other factors at play.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is the cause? (Hume)

Hume's philosophy suggests that causality is not a direct observation but rather an inference based on the constant conjunction of events. We see events happening together and infer a cause-effect relationship.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Causal Diagram

A visual representation of causal relationships between variables, using arrows to indicate the direction of influence.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Causal Reasoning Error

An error in reasoning that incorrectly assumes a causal relationship between two variables simply because they are correlated.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Counterfactual

An imagined scenario that explores what would have happened if something had been different. It helps us understand the potential impact of a specific event.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Correlation without Causation

A situation where two variables are related, but the relationship is not causal. It can be due to a third, unobserved variable influencing both.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Causal Connection

A situation where two variables are causally related, meaning one directly influences the other. It involves a clear direction of effect.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Indirect Causal Connection

A situation where two variables are causally related, but the relationship may not be direct. There may be intervening variables that affect the relationship.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Confounding variable

A variable that influences both the independent variable and the dependent variable, making it difficult to isolate the true causal effect of the independent variable.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is a causal diagram?

A causal diagram is a visual representation of causal relationships between variables. It helps to identify potential confounds (variables that affect both the cause and the outcome) and make causal assumptions explicit.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is a collider?

A collider is a variable that is caused by two other variables. If you condition on a collider, you can create spurious associations between the two original variables.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is collider bias?

Collider bias occurs when conditioning on a collider leads to a spurious association between two variables. This is because the collider itself can be influenced by factors that are not explicitly considered.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What is an INUS condition?

An INUS condition (Insufficient but Necessary part of an Unnecessary but Sufficient condition) is a factor that is not sufficient alone to cause an outcome but is necessary for that outcome to occur in the presence of other factors.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Confounder

A third variable influences both the independent and dependent variables, creating a spurious association between them.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Collider

A third variable is caused by both the independent and dependent variables, creating a spurious association when controlling for it.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Common Cause

A spurious association between two variables due to a common cause influencing both.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Mediator

A variable that mediates the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Conditioning on Collider

Treating a collider as a confounder, leading to a mistaken conclusion about the relationship between two variables.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Spurious Correlation

Controlling for a variable that is actually a collider, not a confounder, can lead to spurious associations and biased findings.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Causal Chain

A group of variables where conditioning on one variable influences the relationship between the other two variables.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Common Effect

A causal diagram where two variables affect a third variable.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Mediation Path

A causal diagram representing a mediation effect.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Confounding Path

A causal diagram representing a confound effect.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Common Cause Path

A causal diagram representing a common cause effect.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Collider Path

A causal diagram representing a collider effect.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Collider Bias

The idea that spurious correlations can be created by conditioning on colliders

Signup and view all the flashcards

Spurious Association

A spurious association occurs when two variables appear to be correlated, but the association is due to a third variable.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Confounder (Common cause)

An extra variable that influences both the potential cause and the outcome, masking the true relationship between them.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Collider (Common effect)

A variable that is affected by both the potential cause and the outcome, creating an apparent association between cause and effect, when in reality, the effect is the true cause.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Berkson's paradox

A paradox that arises from conditioning on a collider, leading to a seemingly reversed association between two variables.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Conditional association

A study that focuses on the relationship between two variables while ignoring the influence of other variables.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Causal inference

The process of isolating the effect of a cause on an outcome while controlling for other factors.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Study Notes

Lecture 20: Critical Thinking About Causality

  • Hume's view on causation: Discussing the operations of body and brute matter, to investigate the idea of causation and necessity.

  • Correlation vs. Causation: Correlation does not imply causation. One must consider causal connections, causal reasoning errors, counterfactuals, and threats of causal inference.

  • Causal Reasoning Errors: Mistaking correlation for causation, post hoc ergo propter hoc, and inversion of cause and effect.

  • Criteria of Causality (John Stuart Mill): Priority (change X precedes change Y), Consistency (change X systematically varies with change Y), and Exclusivity (no alternative explanation for the relationship).

  • Types of Causal Relationships: Mediation, Moderation, and Common Cause / Collider Bias.

  • Causality and Counterfactuals: Perfect counterfactuals are impossible; research uses good counterfactuals by comparing observations with what would have happened if there were no manipulation.

  • Identifying Threats to Causal Inference:

    • Outside factors (history, maturation).
    • Selection effects (different criteria for treatment related to outcomes, attrition).
    • Unintended effects of study itself (instrumentation, testing, regression to the mean).

  • INUS Conditions: Insufficient, non-redundant, unnecessary, and sufficient. A detailed example of a combination of conditions sufficient to produce fire to illustrate this.

  • Causal Diagrams: Used to visualize and understand the relationships between variables. Multiple examples given to illustrate specific kinds of causal relationships, including collider bias, common cause, and mediator / collider diagrams.

Additional Study Points

  • Researching causality in hazing/initiations: Study of the role of cognitive dissonance reduction and counterfactual. Specific example given to illustrate the procedure.

  • Importance of specifying relationships between variables to distinguish between causation and correlation.

  • Issues with "swamps of ambiguity" and research around psychological causality.

  • The Berkeley admissions paradox to identify and understand the implications of collider bias

  • Different types of causal diagrams and causal relationships (mediator, common cause, collider bias) and their implications for research.

  • Detailed examples of how to analyze and identify the implications of causal diagrams provided.

Studying That Suits You

Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

Quiz Team

Related Documents

SSR 2024 Lecture 20 Critical Thinking About Causality PDF

Description

Explore the nuances of causation in this quiz, focusing on Hume's perspective and the critical difference between correlation and causation. You'll learn about causal reasoning errors and the criteria set forth by John Stuart Mill for establishing causal relationships. Delve into various types of causal relationships and the complexities of counterfactual reasoning.

More Like This

Use Quizgecko on...
Browser
Open
Browser
Browser