Criminology Chapter 15: Theories of Crime

Chapter 15: Deterrence, Routine Activity, and Rational Choice Theories

• Learning Objectives: Understand the role of law as a deterrent to crime and recognize its limits; discuss how offenders make choices; understand the routine activities approach to crime and the roles of the motivated offender, suitable target, and ineffective guardianship; know the rationale underlying situational crime prevention; understand the need for comprehensive crime prevention initiatives.

Introduction

• Deterrence Theories: Certain factors influence an individual's decision to commit a crime and the legal system can be used to affect that decision.
• Rational Choice Theory: People break the law because they believe crime will provide a reward.
• Routine Activities Theory: Crime will not occur unless there is a motivated offender, a suitable target, and ineffective guardianship of that target.

Deterrence Theory

• Beccaria's Classical Theory: People rationally calculate the consequences of their behavior. The best way to control crime is to set up a system of punishments to prevent crime. Punishments should be severe enough to deter but proportionate to the nature of the crime. Additionally, punishment should be swift and certain.
• Effectiveness of Law: Deterrence is effective to some extent. Most people do not want to be punished. However, research shows the certainty of punishment is more important than its severity. It's easier for governments to pass tougher sentencing laws than to increase the certainty of punishment.
• Does Imprisonment Deter Crime?: Long prison sentences are difficult to justify on a deterrence basis. Imprisonment may increase recidivism rates. Some research shows that turning 18 in the US and facing adult sentences has little effect on crime.
• Mandatory Minimum Sentences: While widely used, there is debate about their effectiveness. Research suggests insufficient credible evidence shows a significant deterrent effect.
• Why don't severe penalties deter crime?: Offenders may ignore the risk of getting caught, the likelihood of being caught and punished is low, many criminal offenses are not reported, and many offenders have mental health or addiction issues that impact decision-making.
• War on Drugs and Deterrence: The biggest failure of mandatory sentencing and other deterrence policies is the war on drugs. Billions have been spent combating drug trafficking and consumption without success. Even a high threat of death does not deter drug dealers.

The Impact of Increasing the Certainty of Punishment

• Research Supports Deterrent Effect: A large body of research supports the deterrent effect of increased certainty of punishment, especially via:
• Hot spots policing: Focusing police resources in high-crime areas can reduce crime by increasing the certainty of arrest.
• Individualized deterrence: Directly informing individuals about the consequences of future criminality can have a deterrent effect.
• Operation Ceasefire: A program designed to increase the certainty of punishment for violent crime, particularly in Boston. This involved a multi-agency approach.

Rational Choice Theory

• Offender's Choices: Based on offender's choices in specific situations, perceptions of risks and rewards, selection of targets, and how they proceed.
• Crime as Deliberate Choice: Crimes are results of deliberate choices made by offenders, based on calculations of risks and rewards in the moment.
• Short-Term vs. Long-Term Considerations: Short-term costs and benefits of crime are more important than long-term considerations, such as potential jail time or health risks.

Environmental Criminology

• Examining Crime Preceding Involvement: Environmental criminology examines the target search process of offenders, focusing on environmental opportunities.
• Daily Routines and Crime Patterns: Offenders are more likely to commit offences along paths of their daily routines, visiting places where they live, work, and socialize.
• Analyzing Crime Patterns: Nodes (important locations), paths (routes), and edges (boundaries between different types of land use) are considered when studying crime patterns.
• Target selection is influenced by spatial attributes of daily routines

Routine Activities Theory

• Circumstances of Crime: Focuses on patterns of crime, when and when where it occurs, immediate circumstances of the crime, and the relationship between victims and offenders.
• Lifestyle and Exposure to Risk: Some lifestyles expose people more to certain risks.
• Factors for Crime: Three factors - Motivated offender, Suitable target, Lack of guardianship (of the target) - must be present for crime to occur.
• Changes in factors: Changes to these factors can lead to an increase or decrease in crime.

Policy Implications: Preventing Crime

• Situational Crime Prevention: Opportunities for crime can be reduced by increasing the effort required, increasing the risks, reducing rewards, reducing provocations, and removing excuses.
• Example Strategies: Target hardening, controlling access to targets, surveillance, and identifying property.
• Ronald Clarke's 25 Techniques of Situational Prevention: A broad variety of situational tactics that reduce crime.
• Reducing Motivated Offenders: Crime prevention strategies can reduce the pool of motivated offenders by, for example, improving parenting skills or offering job training and employment. Focus is on social development strategies to reach the next generation of offenders.
• Example Programs: Perry Preschool Project in Michigan - impacting early childhood development and reducing crime rates.

Summary

• Deterrence: Focuses on individual decision-making and factors influencing their choice to commit an offence.
• Rational Choice: Assumes crimes are committed for perceived rewards; decisions are not always rational.
• Routine Activities: Highlights the simultaneous combination of a motivated offender, suitable target, and lack of guardianship to explain crimes. Explains that crime risk increased when one of those factors are prevalent.
• Crime Reduction Strategies: Include situational measures, crime prevention through social development, and incapacitation of high-rate offenders. Emphasizing comprehensive crime-prevention approach.