Criminological Research: Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Criminological Research & Statistics

• Research combines "re" (again, anew) and "search" (examine closely).
• There are two research approaches: quantitative and qualitative.

Quantitative Research

• Quantitative research uses numerical data and statistical methods to identify patterns and relationships.
• Structured tools like surveys and experiments are used.
• Results are presented numerically.
• Objective measurements and data are emphasized.
• Data is collected through closed-ended questions.
• Findings are often generalized to a larger population.

Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research focuses on descriptive, narrative data to gain insights into experiences and beliefs.
• It uses open-ended questions from interviews, observations, or case studies.
• Data is presented in words, themes, or categories.
• Behaviors and motivations are explored.
• Findings are subjective and cannot be generalized to a larger population.
• Allows in-depth exploration of specific topics.

Goals and Reasons for Research

• There are two main goals of social (criminological) research: to develop theory and to find solutions for practice.
• Pure research develops theory and expands knowledge.
• Applied research develops solutions for problems in criminological practice.
• There are three reasons for research: exploration, description, and explanation.
• Exploration is done with little prior knowledge.
• Description adds information with some prior knowledge.
• Explanation explains facts with substantial prior knowledge.
• Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation which solves problems.

Research Process and Qualities

• The research process starts with identifying the problem.
• A good research problem is specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound.
• Research involves original work, not just personal opinions.
• Qualities of a good researcher are to be research-oriented, efficient, scientific, effective, active, resourceful, creative, honest, ethical, and religious.

Ethical Considerations

• Veracity is the obligation to accurately report and tell the truth.
• Privacy is the obligation to maintain limited access to a person.
• Anonymity and confidentiality protect discovered information.
• Fidelity is remaining faithful to commitments.
• Informed consent is seeking permission.
• Researchers must avoid inflicting harm.
• Participation must be voluntary and avoid deception by revealing the real research purpose.

Methods of Criminological Research

• Descriptive Method describes a situation factually.
• Historical Method reconstructs the past accurately, often related to a hypothesis.
• Case and Field Method studies the background and interactions of a social unit.
• Correlation Method investigates how variations in one factor relate to variations in others using correlation coefficients.
• Causal-Comparative Method investigates cause-and-effect by looking at existing consequences and data.
• Experimental Method investigates cause-and-effect between treatment conditions.

Types of Criminological Research

• Action Research develops new skills and solves problems in applied settings.
• Survey Research determines attitudes and opinions using questionnaires and interviews. Closed-ended Questionnaires are pre-categorized by the researcher. Open-ended Questionnaires use the respondent's words.
• Observational Research collects direct information about human behavior.
• Historical Research investigates past facts from documents.
• Evaluation Research studies processes for system improvement.

Research Types by Purpose

• Exploration develops an initial understanding through literature, interviews, case studies, etc.
• Description measures and reports population/phenomenon characteristics using census, surveys, qualitative studies.
• Explanation answers "why" with experimental methods.

Hypothesis and Sources of Information

• A hypothesis is a "wise guess."
• Null Hypothesis is one type.
• Alternative Hypothesis (Operational Hypothesis) is another type.
• Information sources include related literature (books, magazines), readings (legal documents, memos), studies (journals, theses), key informants, artifacts, and other material evidence.

Writing the Research Report

• APA Format uses parenthetical citations.
• Footnotes give references, explanations, positioned at the bottom of the page with superscript numbers.
• Endnotes are notes placed at the end of the text.
• "Ibid" means "in the same place" and refers to the same source cited before.
• "Op. cit." means "in the work cited," referring to a previously cited work.
• "Loc. cit." means "in the place cited," referring to the same work and page number.

Questionnaires

• The are two types of Questionnaires; Structured and Unstructured.

Questions

• There are two types of questions; close-ended and open-ended.
• Close-ended questions are easy to code, avoid irrelevant answers but may guess answers and limit options.
• Open-ended questions allow detailed answers but are difficult to code

Open-Ended Questions

• Open-ended questions may lead to irrelevant information that requires higher education to analyze.

Variables

• A variable is a symbol to which values are assigned.
• There are three types of variables; Dependent, Independent and Intervening variable.
• There are two categories of variables; independent and dependent.
• Independent – presumed cause.
• Dependent – presumed effect.
• Intervening variables are useful, powerful, and indispensable to analyzing behavior.

Sampling

• Sampling chooses subjects in a study.
• There are two approaches to sampling: probability (systematic, randomized) and non-probability.

Probability Sampling

• There are 6 types of Probability Sampling; Random, Systematic Random, Stratified, Simple Cluster, Strip, Multistage.
• Random Sampling selects individuals with equal chances.
• Systematic Random Sampling is selected through a random process at pre-established intervals.
• Stratified Sampling divides samples into homogeneous groups called strata.
• Simple Cluster Sampling groups population by cluster elements.
• Strip Sampling divides areas into narrow strips and then selects strips randomly.
• Multistage Sampling is used when there is no detailed listing of individuals.

Non-Probability Sampling

• There are three types of Non-Probability Sampling; Judgement, Quota and Accidental Sampling
• Judgment Sampling selects samples based on subjective judgment.
• Quota Sampling fills a quota predetermined by population characteristics.
• Accidental Sampling includes whoever is there at data collection.

Sampling Techniques

• A sample reflects population characteristics.
• Randomness means sampling is non-purposive.
• Randomization ensures equal chance of inclusion.

Factors for Selecting Size and Population

• Homogeneity
• Size of the Population
• The Cost
• Precision

Levels of Measurement

• Measurement assigns numbers to phenomena.
• Nominal categorizes based on properties (e.g., gender).
• Ordinal ranks observations (e.g., age groups).
• Interval has equal intervals with an arbitrary zero (e.g., temperature).
• Ratio has an absolute zero (e.g., age, height).

Statistical Tools

• Slovin's and Parten's Formulas are for sample size.
• Split-half method, Spearman-Brown prophecy, and Cronbach's alpha are for reliability.
• Standardized tools and expert panels are for validity.

Measurement Errors

• Measurement errors are caused by environmental, research, instrumentation, and subject factors.

Mean, Mode and Median

• Mean is the average.

Median

• Is the middle value when the data is arranged in ascending or descending order.
• If the number of data is odd, the middle value is the median.
• If the number of data is even, the median is the average of the two middle values.

Mode

• Mode is the most frequent value.

Parts of the Research:

• Preliminaries: Title Page provides study information of the title, researchers, degree and institution, and month and year.
• Approval Sheet is a certification of research approval.
• Acknowledgement thanks those who helped.
• Dedication expresses gratitude to individuals.
• The abstract summarizes the study, its objectives, methods, findings, and conclusions.
• Table of Contents lists chapters and sections.
• List of Figures enumerates visual illustrations.
• List of Tables presents tabulated data.
• Chapter I: Introduction The Background of the Study overviews the research problem. Objectives state the general and specific goals.
• Significance highlights the research's importance and beneficiaries.
• The scope defines the research's extent.
• The limitations explain research restrictions.
• Theoretical Framework supports the research with theories.
• Conceptual Framework visually explains variable relationships.
• Paradigm illustrates the research process flow.
• Hypothesis is a testable assumption.
• Definition of Terms defines key terms.

Chapter II

• Review of Literature summarizes and evaluates existing studies.
• Chapter III: Methodology Locale of the Study describes the research location. Research Design is the overall strategy. Variables are measured elements. Respondents are study participants. Population refers to the total group of individuals or subjects that the study aims to investigate. Sampling is the process of selecting a smaller group (sample) from the population. Research Instrument refers to the tools or materials used to collect data. Scoring and Interpretation explains data scoring. Validation of Research Instrument ensures that the tools used in the study are reliable, accurate, and appropriate for measuring the desired data. Data Gathering Procedures outlines data process that includes seeking permission, distributing the forms, collection and retrieval Statistical Treatment of the Data explains the mathematical or statistical techniques used to analyze the data
• Chapter IV
• Presentation, analysis and interpretation of the data Chapter IV. Presentation, analysis and interpretation of the data
• Summary, conclusion, implication and recommendations G. Back matters
• Literature Cited catalogues the sources used.
• Appendices include supplementary materials.
• Curriculum Vitae is a document that provides the personal background, educational attainment, and achievements of the researchers.