Criminal Justice Act 2003: Aims of Punishment

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Questions and Answers

What is one of the main purposes of sentencing according to the Criminal Justice Act 2003?

To punish offenders (correct)

To rehabilitate offenders

To promote community service

To increase crime rates

Which theory emphasizes that punishment should reflect the severity of the crime committed?

Rehabilitation theory

Just deserts theory (correct)

Deterrence theory

Restorative justice

What does Durkheim's expressive view of punishment suggest?

Punishment should solely aim at reducing crime rates.

Punishment should always be lenient.

Punishment is a way to express societal outrage. (correct)

Punishment can be ignored if the offender shows remorse.

What does the theory of retribution focus on?

Punishing offenders for the sake of punishment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the general deterrence concept?

Making an example of offenders to discourage others from committing similar acts Signup and view all the answers

What outcome does the just deserts theory imply for the victim of a crime?

They should feel the offender is punished appropriately. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of punishment, what does incapacitation aim to achieve?

To physically prevent offenders from committing further crimes Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of reparation in punishment focus on?

Restoring the victim's loss caused by the offender Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary symptom associated with excessive dopamine activity in schizophrenia?

Hallucinations Signup and view all the answers

Which dopaminergic pathway is primarily involved in schizophrenia?

Mesolimbocortical system Signup and view all the answers

How does PCP support the glutamate hypothesis in schizophrenia?

It blocks NMDA receptors Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of the dopamine hypothesis regarding antipsychotic drugs?

They show delayed effects on behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which gene is primarily associated with immune and inflammatory responses related to neurodegeneration?

IL1B Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is characterized by disorganized symptoms rather than primarily psychotic symptoms?

Disorganized schizophrenia Signup and view all the answers

What role does the TP53 gene play in relation to schizophrenia?

It prevents gene mutations Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between dopamine and glutamate in the context of schizophrenia?

Dopamine inhibits glutamate release Signup and view all the answers

How does the hTPH2 mutation affect individuals with major depression?

It results in approximately 80% loss of function in serotonin production. Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main effects of May on individuals during stressful events?

It alters reactions to stressful events. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of antidepressant drug works by blocking reabsorption of neurotransmitters?

Tricyclics Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes orchid and dandelion children in the context of environmental sensitivity?

Some individuals are more susceptible to environmental conditions. Signup and view all the answers

Why might depressed patients with the hTPH2 mutation not respond to certain antidepressants?

Insufficient serotonin is produced in the first place. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes psychotic symptoms from disorganized symptoms in schizophrenia?

Psychotic symptoms include delusions, while disorganized symptoms involve incoherent speech and behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes positive symptoms of schizophrenia?

Behaviors that are present and should be absent Signup and view all the answers

What role do stress hormones play in the orchid and dandelion model?

They influence individual responses to environmental conditions. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes tricyclic antidepressants from other types?

They block reuptake of multiple neurotransmitters. Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the factors that can influence the development of schizophrenia?

Genetic predisposition as shown in twin studies Signup and view all the answers

What is a common feature of medications used to treat psychiatric disorders?

Many were found accidentally during other treatments. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia is accurate?

Negative symptoms are usually stable over time and difficult to treat. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common gender-related characteristic of schizophrenia prevalence?

Men are more commonly affected by schizophrenia than women. Signup and view all the answers

How do monozygotic twins' concordance rates for schizophrenia compare to dizygotic twins?

Monozygotic twins exhibit a significantly higher concordance rate. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following genes is associated with serotonin transporter functions relevant to schizophrenia?

TPH1 Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter system is primarily implicated in genetic influences related to schizophrenia?

Dopamine receptors Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Aims of Punishment

Punishment is a key aspect of the criminal justice system, ensuring consequences for crime and upholding societal order.
The Criminal Justice Act 2003 (s142) outlines two main aims of sentencing:
- Punishment of the offender: Holding the offender accountable for their actions.
- Reduction of crime: Deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation are all aimed at reducing crime.
Retribution, often described as "an eye for an eye", is about justice and making the offender suffer in proportion to the harm caused.
- This approach sees punishment as deserving and a consequence of the crime, reflecting society's outrage.
- Just Deserts theory by Von Hirsch emphasizes that punishment should be proportionate to the crime and express blame or censure, addressing the wrong done to the victim.

Deterrence

General Deterrence: Aims to discourage potential offenders by demonstrating the consequences of criminal behavior.
- This is achieved by making punishment public and visible, serving as a warning to the public.
Individual Deterrence: Aiming to prevent the specific offender from reoffending by making them experience the unpleasant consequences of their actions.

Incapacitation (Public Protection)

This aim focuses on removing the offender from society to protect the public while they are incapacitated.
This can involve imprisonment, restraining orders, or other measures to prevent further harm.

Reparation

This aims to address the harm caused by the offender and restore the victim's sense of justice.
Reparation can involve various measures like:
- Financial compensation: Repaying the victim for damages or losses.
- Community service: Performing work to benefit the community, demonstrating responsibility and acknowledging the impact of their actions.
- Apology: A sincere expression of remorse and regret for the harm caused.

Scenario Analysis

In the scenario provided, the offender, an 18-year-old male, broke into a garage, causing property damage and causing emotional unease to the victim.
Reparation would be the most appropriate aim in this case, focusing on restoring the victim's sense of justice:
- The offender could be ordered to make financial compensation for the damage to the garage and fence.
- Community service could be used to benefit the local community and demonstrate responsibility.
- A sincere apology to the victim should be encouraged, acknowledging the harm caused and expressing regret.

Schizophrenia

Affects about 1% of the population with varying severity
Occurs across the globe, but is significantly more prevalent in the US and Europe compared to third world countries
Prevalence is slightly higher in men than women with an estimated 7:5 ratio
Men experience more severe symptoms and an earlier onset (early 20s versus late 20s)

Positive and Negative Symptoms

Positive symptoms are behaviours present that should be absent
- Psychotic (e.g., hallucinations, delusions)
- Disorganized (e.g., disorganized speech and behaviour)
Negative symptoms are behaviours absent that should be present
- Weak social interaction
- Diminished emotional expression
- Limited speech
- Impaired working memory
Negative symptoms are generally stable over time and difficult to treat

Heredity

Twin studies suggest a genetic factor, but not attributed to a single gene
Monozygotic (identical) twins have a significantly higher concordance rate (agreement) than dizygotic (fraternal) twins
However, even monozygotic twins only have a 50% concordance rate
This suggests other factors contribute to the development of Schizophrenia
Observed differences between dizygotic twins compared to siblings suggest potential prenatal or postnatal environmental influences

Genes Associated with Schizophrenia

Neurotransmission
- Dopamine receptors: DRD1, DRD2, DRD4
- Serotonin production: TPH1
- Serotonin transporter: SLC6A4
- NMDA glutamate receptor function: DAO, GRIN2B
- Glutamate release: DTNBP1
- GABAA receptor: GABRB2
- Enzyme that deactivates neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine): COMT

Gene-Environment Interaction

Individuals exhibit varying susceptibility to both negative (risk-provoking) and positive (development-enhancing) environmental conditions
Some individuals may experience higher sickness leave due to poor environments than others in similar conditions
Potential contributing factors include:
- Stress hormones
- Neuro-plasticity

Tryptophan Hydroxylase-2 (hTPH2)

A specific mutation in the hTPH2 gene is found ten times more frequently in major depression patients compared to non-depressed individuals
This mutation results in a dysfunctional protein, causing an approximately 80% loss of function in serotonin production
Depressed patients with this gene mutation may not respond to antidepressants that work by blocking serotonin reuptake, as insufficient serotonin is produced

Antidepressant Drugs

Many psychiatric medication discoveries were accidental
Categories of antidepressants include:
- Tricyclics
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
- Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
- Atypical antidepressants

Tricyclic Antidepressants

Block transporter proteins responsible for reabsorbing serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline back into the presynaptic neuron after release
Example: Imipramine (Tofranil)
Also block histamine receptors, acetylcholine receptors, and certain sodium channels

The Dopamine Hypothesis

Schizophrenia is associated with excessive dopamine activity in the brain
Supporting Evidence: Amphetamine overdose causes psychotic behaviour nearly indistinguishable from Schizophrenia, including hallucinations and paranoid delusions, by increasing dopaminergic activity
Research indicates increased activity specifically at the D2 receptor

Limitations of the Dopamine Hypothesis

Direct measurement of dopamine and its metabolites generally show normal levels in people with Schizophrenia
Antipsychotic drugs block dopamine quickly, within minutes, but their behavioural effects take much longer, building gradually over 2 to 3 weeks

Dopaminergic Pathways in the Brain

Mesolimbocortical System: A set of neurons that project from the midbrain tegmentum to the limbic system

The Glutamate Hypothesis

Schizophrenia is partially attributed to deficient activity at glutamate receptors, particularly in the prefrontal cortex
In many brain areas, dopamine inhibits glutamate release, or glutamate stimulates neurons that inhibit dopamine release
This implies increased dopamine can have effects similar to decreased glutamate

Glutamate Hypothesis Supporting Evidence

Lower than normal glutamate release and fewer receptors observed in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of individuals with Schizophrenia
Phencyclidine (PCP), a drug that acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist (blocking its activity), supports the glutamate hypothesis
PCP-induced behavioural effects are similar to those seen in Schizophrenia, suggesting a potential role of NMDA receptor dysfunction

Genes Associated with Schizophrenia (continued)

Development
- Enzymes involved in neural development: MTHFR
- Axon guidance: PLXNA2
Neural Damage
- Neurodegeneration: APOE
- Immune and inflammatory responses: IL1B, HP
- Gene mutation prevention: TP53

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Description

Explore the Aims of Punishment outlined in the Criminal Justice Act 2003, including the concepts of punishment, deterrence, and retribution. Understand how these principles function to maintain societal order and hold offenders accountable for their actions. Dive into theories like Just Deserts and the impact of deterrence on crime reduction.