Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which structure passes through the Foramen Rotundum?
Which structure passes through the Foramen Rotundum?
Which cranial nerves pass through the Internal Acoustic Meatus?
Which cranial nerves pass through the Internal Acoustic Meatus?
Which structure is incorrectly paired with its corresponding foramen?
Which structure is incorrectly paired with its corresponding foramen?
Which structure does the Jugular Foramen NOT transmit?
Which structure does the Jugular Foramen NOT transmit?
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Which structure does not pass through the Foramen Ovale?
Which structure does not pass through the Foramen Ovale?
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Which mechanism is involved in atrophy?
Which mechanism is involved in atrophy?
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Which type of atrophy is characterized by the accumulation of lipofuscin?
Which type of atrophy is characterized by the accumulation of lipofuscin?
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Hypertrophy in cardiac muscle is commonly caused by which condition?
Hypertrophy in cardiac muscle is commonly caused by which condition?
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Which type of cellular adaptation involves an increase in cell number?
Which type of cellular adaptation involves an increase in cell number?
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Endometrial hyperplasia is primarily caused by an increase in which hormone?
Endometrial hyperplasia is primarily caused by an increase in which hormone?
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Which of the following is a premalignant condition?
Which of the following is a premalignant condition?
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Which proteins are involved in the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis?
Which proteins are involved in the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis?
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What event directly follows the increase in mitochondrial membrane permeability in the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis?
What event directly follows the increase in mitochondrial membrane permeability in the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis?
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Which caspase is directly involved in the executioner phase of apoptosis?
Which caspase is directly involved in the executioner phase of apoptosis?
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What is the role of the necrosome in necroptosis?
What is the role of the necrosome in necroptosis?
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Which factor is common between necroptosis and pyroptosis?
Which factor is common between necroptosis and pyroptosis?
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Which protein is responsible for activating IL-1 in pyroptosis?
Which protein is responsible for activating IL-1 in pyroptosis?
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Study Notes
Cranial Foramina
- Foramen Spinosum: Middle meningeal artery, emissary vein, and nervous spinosum
- Foramen Lacerum: Hypoglossal canal (XII)
- Foramen Magnum:
- Cribriform plate: (I, COVID)
- Optic Canal: (II, opthalmic A)
- Sup.orbital fissure: (III, IV, V1, VI)
- Foramen Rotundum: (V2)
- Foramen ovale: (V3)
- Mandibular Nerve:
- Accessory Meningeal Artery:
- Lesser petrosal nerve:
- Emissary vein:
- Internal acoustic meatus: (VII, VIII, Labyrinthine Artery)
-
Jugular foramen:
- Ant.: Inf.Petrosal Sinus
- Middle: IX, X, XI
- Post.: Sigmoid Sinus
Cell Death
I. Apoptosis
-
Mechanism:
-
Initiator Phase:
- Extrinsic Pathway: Stimulus to Death Receptor (e.g., FAS, TNFα, R, IL-1 R)
- Intrinsic Pathway (Mitochondrial): Imbalance between pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins (e.g., BAK, BAX, Bcl-2, Mcl-1, Bcl-XL)
-
Executioner Phase:
- Caspase 8, 10 → Caspase 9
- Caspase 3 (Executioner Caspase) → DNA fragmentation, cytoskeletal protein breakdown, cell shrinkage, cytoplasmic condensation, membrane blebs, and apoptotic bodies
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Initiator Phase:
II. Necroptosis
- Mechanism of Death: Necrosis
- Trigger (Genetically Programmed): TNFα → TNFα, R (Death Receptor) → Necrosome (RIP1, III) → Necrosis
III. Pyroptosis
- Trigger: Bacterial infection → ↓ Inflammasome → Caspase 1 → ↓ Caspase 11 → IL-1 (inactive) → ↓ Active IL-1 → ↓ Inflammation → ↑ Cell death
Cellular Adaptations
-
Atrophy: Decrease in organ size due to decreased cell size or decreased cell count
- Mechanism: Ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, autophagic vacuole → lysosomal hydrolysis
-
Examples of Atrophy:
- Disuse Atrophy: Immobilized limbs
- Ischemic Atrophy: Thromboangitis obliterans
- Pressure Atrophy: Tumors
- Denervation Atrophy: Hemiplegia
- Nutritional Atrophy: PEM, brown color
- Brown Atrophy: Lipofuscin, uncleared autophagic vacuoles in the cell, Myocardium, old age, wear and tear pigment, Aging pigment
- Endocrine Atrophy: Past menopausal, breast, uterus, ovary
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Hypertrophy: Increase in organ size due to increased cell size
- Mechanism: Increase in stimulus/ workload
-
Examples:
- Cardiac muscle: HTN, valvular disease (stenosis and regurgitation)
- Skeletal muscle: Exercise
- Smooth Muscle: Pregnant uterus
- Glandular Hypertrophy: Breast (lactation, pregnancy)
- Hyperplasia: Increase in the number of cells leading to increased organ size
Examples of Hyperplasia
- Smooth muscle: Pregnant uterus
- Glands of breast: Pregnancy and puberty
- Endometrial hyperplasia: ↑ Estrogen
- Bronchial Gland: Chronic bronchiolitis
- Benign Prostatic hyperplasia
- Enthyroid Hyperplasia: High altitude
-
Metaplasia: One mature cell is replaced by another cell
- Pre-malignant
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Description
This quiz covers the different foramina in the cranium, including the foramen spinosum, foramen lacerum, and others, as well as the nerves and blood vessels that pass through them. Test your knowledge of these important anatomical structures.
