CPU Fundamentals

• A CPU is the active brain of the computer.
• It transforms input data into information output.
• It stores and executes program instructions through circuitry.
• The CPU multitasks, regulates internal functions, oversees power consumption, allocates resources, and interfaces with apps, programs, and networks.
• CPUs are installed into CPU sockets, located on the motherboard.
• CPUs can perform various data processing operations, store data, instructions, programs, and intermediate results.

CPU Functionality

• The control unit handles CPU Functionality, with synchronization from the computer clock.
• Fetch: Data is retrieved from memory.
• Decode: Translates binary instructions into electrical signals.
• Execute: Computers interpret and carry out program instructions.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

• ALU stands for Arithmetic Logic Unit, and it is a core element of the CPU.
• It performs basic arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
• It also performs logical operations.
• The ALU is designed for direct access to RAM.
• ALUs are divided into: Arithmetic Unit (AU) for math, and Logic Unit (LU) for logical tasks.

Control Unit

• The Control Unit directs the CPU's operations.
• It was first introduced by John von Neumann as part of the Von Neumann Architecture.
• It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic/logic unit, and input/output devices how to respond to instructions.
• CPUs and GPUs require a Control Unit to operate.

Hardwired Control Unit

• Control signals are generated by fixed hardware circuits.
• The operation code is decoded, and output lines trigger a matrix for execution.
• The control unit progresses through states based on timing, flags, and interrupts.
• The process ends by fetching the next instruction or going to an operating system state if the instruction is complete.

Micro Programmable Control Unit

• This unit stores binary control values as words in memory.
• It generates control signals by executing micro-operations like register transfers at each clock cycle.
• Each microinstruction bit corresponds to a control signal; set means active, cleared means inactive.
• Microinstructions are stored in internal control memory.

Memory Unit

• Memory units hold data for a computer and are accessed by the software.
• Types include volatile and non-volatile storage systems.
• Memory units store things like preferences and bookmarks.
• They include things like USB sticks (up to 64GB).
• Memory units transfer data between devices via USB or network.
• They store frequently accessed data like website addresses, powered on or off.

Cache Memory

• Cache memory: Small, high-speed memory inside or very close to the CPU.
• It stores accessed data/instructions, which reduces the time needed to fetch information from RAM.
• It improves overall CPU performance, due to faster speed than RAM.

Registers

• Registers: Computer memory built into the processor or CPU.
• They used to store and manipulate data during instruction execution.
• Registers can hold an instruction, storage address, or any kind of data.
• They store instructions from programs before the CPU processes them. This helps the computer quickly find and follow steps.
• Registers store temporary answers during math or other tasks.
• Registers stores important things nearby, much like quick-access shelves.

Internal Buses

• Internal CPU bus: A set of electrical pathways that allow data to move between internal components like registers, ALU, and the control unit.
• It typically consists of three separate buses: data bus, address bus, and control bus.
• Each type of bus has a specific function in transferring data and managing operations.

CPU Performance

• CPU performance: How fast a computer's processor (CPU) can complete tasks.
• Performance of a CPU is measured by the number of instructions it can complete per second.
• It relies on clock speed and other factors, such as design and cache size.

CPU Performance Factors

• Clock Speed: Determines how many cycles per second the CPU can execute; Higher GHz = Faster processing .
• Cores: enable better multitasking and parallel processing; handle separate tasks simultaneously, improving efficiency in multi-threaded applications.

Threads and Hyperthreading

• Threads & Hyperthreading: Enables a single core to handle multiple tasks simultaneously.
• Single Threading: The CPU processes only one thread per core at a time.
• Multi-threading: 1 core = 1 thread (unless SMT is enabled).
• Hyper-threading: 1 core = 2 threads (logical cores).

CPU Inventors

• Breakthrough CPU technologies often have more than one parent. The more complex and impactful that technology, the more people that are involved in its origin.
• Independent invention: The phenomenon where similar technologies or ideas are developed independently around the same time.
• Federico Faggin, with his team at Intel (Ted Hoff and Stanley Mazor), developed the Intel 4004 in 1971.
• Texas Instruments developed the TMS 1000 microcontroller in 1971, which combined processor and memory on a single chip.
• In regards to independent inventions, Garrett AiResearch and other aerospace companies worked on computing tech for military/space.
• Foundational Theory: The Von Neumann architecture (1940s) has foundational knowledge.
• Technological Convergence: The late 1960s-early 1970s had rapid advances in semiconductor technology.

Pioneers

• Robert Noyce: Revolutionized technology by inventing the monolithic integrated circuit (microchip).
• Robert Noyce co-founded Fairchild Semiconductor in 1957 and Intel in 1968.
• He led the development of the Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor.
• He worked alongside Gordon Moore, and advancements laid foundation for today's digital world.
• American Grace Brewster Hopper (1906-1992): Made up for smaller sized body with energy and versatile brilliance.
• She worked on the development of the UNIVAC supercomputer after WWII.

Early Computers

• Fate of the world truly hanging in the balance in 1943.
• World War II's outcome (1939-1945) was still undecided, and both Allies and Axis forces sought technological advantages.
• The US government assembled a group of engineers from the Moore School of Electrical Engineering (University of Pennsylvania).

UNIVAC Computer

• Two leaders of the ENIAC project decided to bring computing to American business after WWII.
• This new Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation (EMCC) set out to create a cheaper version of ENIAC.
• They added tape drives, keyboard, and a converter for punch-card use.
• The UNIVAC was unveiled in 1951.
• The CPU contained the first CPU, the UNIVAC 1103, which was developed during that project.
• The UNIVAC 1103 used glass vacuum tubes: making the CPU slow and unwieldy.

Transistors

• CPUs began to use vacuum tubes.
• Vacuum tubes: Fragile components prone to breaking, causing system failures
• Manufacturers tested and saved durable tubes for replacements.
• The bulkiness of vacuum tubes made computers large and less effective.
• In 1953, an engineer from the University of Manchester built a fully transistor-based computer.
• Early germanium transistors were difficult to purify and required precise temperature control.
• By 1954, Bell Labs experimented with silicon.
• Mohamed Italia and Dawn Kahng create the MOSFET in 1960; an estimated 13 sextillion MOS transistors produced by 2018.
• The microprocessor called the core "brain within the brain."

Microprocessors

• Miniaturization continued until a small CPU in a small integrated circuit chip was created.
• Microprocessors vary in the number of cores supported.
• Physical cores in one socket enables each physical core to use into the same computing environment.
• Terms related to microprocessors: single-core, dual-core, and quad-core processors.
• In terms of Intel processors: The Intel 4004 was the company's first microprocessor (1971); Ted Hoff's was needed in this invention.
• The Motorola 68000, a 16/32-bit processor, also hit the market in 1979. The Sun unveiled the SPARC CPU in 1987. AMD unveiled the AM386 CPU series in March 1991.
• In January 1999, Intel introduced the Celeron 366 MHZ and 400 MHz processors. AMD created with its first dual-core processor (April 2005). Intel introduced the Core 2 Dual processor (2006). The first Core i5 desktop processor with four cores occurred in September 2009.
• The lastest releases include processors like the Core 2 Quad processor Q9500, the initial Core i3 and i5 mobile processors, and the first Core i3 & i5 desktop processors (January 2010). Other more recent releases include Core i9 desktop processor (June 2017), and first Core i9 mobile processor (April 2018).

Intel Core i7 11th Generation Processors

• Intel® Core™ i7-11700 Processor: Solid performance with 8 cores and 16 threads, lower base clock (2.5 GHz vs K models); integrated graphics (Intel UHD Graphics 750); efficient 65W TDP.
• Architecture: 11th Gen Rocket Lake (14nm), Socket Type: LGA 1200; DDR4-3200.
• Intel® Core™ i7-11700K Processor: High-performance; 8 cores & 16 threads; unlocked for overclocking; base clock 3.6 GHz (boost to 5.0 GHz single core).
• Architecture: 11th Gen "Rocket Lake"; Max Turbo Boost Frequency: Up to 5.0 GHz (Single-core).
• Intel® Core™ i7-11700KF Processor: Like 11700K, unlocked for overclocking, lacks graphics (no Intel UHD Graphics 750).
• Architecture: Rocket Lake-S; Max Turbo Frequency: Up to 5.0 GHz (with Intel Turbo Boost Max Technology 3.0).
• Intel® Core™ i7-11700F Processor: Similar performance to 11700; lacks graphics; relies on dedicated GPU; cost-effective (if iGPU not needed); unlocked multiplier.
• Base Frequency rate of 2.5 GHz with a Max Turbo Clock Frequency of 5.0 GHz.
• Intel® Core™ i7-11700T Processor: Low-power (base clock 1.4 GHz, TDP 35W); 8 cores, 16 Threads, Intel UHD Graphics 750.

CPU Advantages

• Versatility: Handles complex tasks, from basic calculation to operating system.
• Performance: Modern CPUs are fast, perform billions of calculations per second.
• Multi-core: Multiple cores handle multiple tasks simultaneously.
• Compatibility: Designed software that runs wide range of software.

CPU Disadvantages

• Overheating: Generates a lot of heat with complex tasks; Effective solutions such as cooling or fans can be costly.
• Power Consumption: Consume vary high amount of power, which cause higher electricity bills.
• Cost: Best performance CPUs can be expensive.

Technical Definitions

• Motherboard: The main circuit board in a computer that connects all the components; Is required for RAM to operate.
• Germanium: A Chemical Element and Semi Conductor is in Electronics.
• Vacuum Tubes: Electric Current flows between Electrodes with it.
• Microchip: A computer chip or integrated circuit. RAM (Random Access Memory): Computer short – Term Memory. Memory Unit: Stores amounts of Data in a Computer.
• Cache: Enhances Speed performance on Computer's.
• GigaHertz: One Billion Hertz is measured.
• iGPU(Integrated Graphics Processing Unit): Graphics processor built directly into computer's CPU.
• Overclocking: Process of increasing components speeds for enhanced better performance.
• Single-core processor One execution task at a time, outdated with multitasking currently.
• Dual-core processor: Contains two cores & multitask. Quad-core processor Excels in running multithreaded applications, such as video editing software, complex games, and more. Hybrid Integrated Circuit: combines integrated circuits (ICs) with resistors.
• Monolithic Integrated Circuit: Integrated circuits which produces silicon materials,
• PCLe(Peripheral Component Interconnect Express ): Connects interal hardware together.
• Miniaturization: Reducing sized without sacrificing features.

Explore the core functions of a computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU). Understand its role in executing instructions and performing calculations. Learn how it handles multitasking and how the computer clock regulates operations.