Podcast
Questions and Answers
How many protons are in the nucleus of a carbon atom?
How many protons are in the nucleus of a carbon atom?
How many electrons can the first shell of an atom hold?
How many electrons can the first shell of an atom hold?
Which element can form 4 covalent bonds by sharing its 4 outer shell electrons?
Which element can form 4 covalent bonds by sharing its 4 outer shell electrons?
What is the maximum number of covalent bonds that oxygen can form?
What is the maximum number of covalent bonds that oxygen can form?
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How many electrons are present in the outer shell of a hydrogen atom?
How many electrons are present in the outer shell of a hydrogen atom?
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What is the atomic number of sulfur?
What is the atomic number of sulfur?
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How many covalent bonds can sulfur form?
How many covalent bonds can sulfur form?
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What determines if a bond is polar or not?
What determines if a bond is polar or not?
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How many covalent bonds can a phosphorous atom form based on the information provided?
How many covalent bonds can a phosphorous atom form based on the information provided?
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Which type of bond involves electron sharing?
Which type of bond involves electron sharing?
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In a non-polar covalent bond, how are electrons shared?
In a non-polar covalent bond, how are electrons shared?
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What is the main difference between polar and non-polar covalent bonds?
What is the main difference between polar and non-polar covalent bonds?
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What type of connection do hydrogen bonds, Van Der Waals forces, and ionic bonds belong to?
What type of connection do hydrogen bonds, Van Der Waals forces, and ionic bonds belong to?
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What determines the electronegativity of an atom in a covalent bond?
What determines the electronegativity of an atom in a covalent bond?
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In a covalent bond, if the electronegativity difference between two atoms is greater than 0.5, what happens?
In a covalent bond, if the electronegativity difference between two atoms is greater than 0.5, what happens?
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Which atom in the table forms a polar covalent bond with hydrogen?
Which atom in the table forms a polar covalent bond with hydrogen?
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In a water molecule, which part is more negative due to sharing electrons with hydrogen?
In a water molecule, which part is more negative due to sharing electrons with hydrogen?
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What type of bonds are responsible for dipole-dipole interactions between neighboring molecules?
What type of bonds are responsible for dipole-dipole interactions between neighboring molecules?
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What property of water allows it to dissolve neutral polar molecules?
What property of water allows it to dissolve neutral polar molecules?
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How do hydrophobic molecules behave when placed in water?
How do hydrophobic molecules behave when placed in water?
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What term describes a molecule that repels water?
What term describes a molecule that repels water?
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Which type of interaction can be attractive or repulsive in nature?
Which type of interaction can be attractive or repulsive in nature?
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What type of Van der Waals force occurs between two polar bonds?
What type of Van der Waals force occurs between two polar bonds?
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How do hydrophilic molecules behave in passing through the phospholipid bilayer?
How do hydrophilic molecules behave in passing through the phospholipid bilayer?
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Which term refers to molecules having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions?
Which term refers to molecules having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions?
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What do dipole-induced dipole forces involve?
What do dipole-induced dipole forces involve?
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In Van der Waals forces, what happens when the van der Waals radius is optimal?
In Van der Waals forces, what happens when the van der Waals radius is optimal?
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What defines a redox reaction?
What defines a redox reaction?
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What are NAD+/NADH?
What are NAD+/NADH?
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What type of oxidoreductase is used in Dehydrogenases?
What type of oxidoreductase is used in Dehydrogenases?
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In the Krebs cycle, what is oxidized to make Malate?
In the Krebs cycle, what is oxidized to make Malate?
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What oxidizes H's and donates them to oxygen?
What oxidizes H's and donates them to oxygen?
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What are FAD/FADH2 in the context of enzyme reactions?
What are FAD/FADH2 in the context of enzyme reactions?
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Which enzyme classification involves Isomerization reactions?
Which enzyme classification involves Isomerization reactions?
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'LEO the lion says GER' represents a mnemonic for understanding:
'LEO the lion says GER' represents a mnemonic for understanding:
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'CAC' in 'Redox Example: CAC' refers to:
'CAC' in 'Redox Example: CAC' refers to:
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'Oxidoreductases catalyze redox reactions'. What do they reduce according to the text?
'Oxidoreductases catalyze redox reactions'. What do they reduce according to the text?
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Why is UDP a better leaving group than OH?
Why is UDP a better leaving group than OH?
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In the context of hydrolases, what type of transferase enzyme is being used?
In the context of hydrolases, what type of transferase enzyme is being used?
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Which molecule acts as a nucleophile in hydrolysis reactions catalyzed by hydrolases?
Which molecule acts as a nucleophile in hydrolysis reactions catalyzed by hydrolases?
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What enzyme class catalyzes hydrolysis reactions in biological systems?
What enzyme class catalyzes hydrolysis reactions in biological systems?
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Which enzyme specifically hydrolyzes monophosphate esters like AMP?
Which enzyme specifically hydrolyzes monophosphate esters like AMP?
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What type of enzyme hydrolyzes peptides to release smaller fragments?
What type of enzyme hydrolyzes peptides to release smaller fragments?
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What molecule acts as a nucleophile in hydrolase-catalyzed reactions?
What molecule acts as a nucleophile in hydrolase-catalyzed reactions?
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What is the primary role of ATPases in biological systems?
What is the primary role of ATPases in biological systems?
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What is the significance of 'X' in the naming convention 'X-ases' for enzymes like Peptidases?
What is the significance of 'X' in the naming convention 'X-ases' for enzymes like Peptidases?
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In the breakdown of fatty acids for energy (beta oxidation), which type of lyase catalyzes a reaction that removes atoms in a molecule to create a double bond?
In the breakdown of fatty acids for energy (beta oxidation), which type of lyase catalyzes a reaction that removes atoms in a molecule to create a double bond?
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What is the molecule added by a hydratase, a type of lyase, during the breakdown of fatty acids for energy (beta oxidation)?
What is the molecule added by a hydratase, a type of lyase, during the breakdown of fatty acids for energy (beta oxidation)?
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What is the role of lyases in biological reactions?
What is the role of lyases in biological reactions?
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Which type of bond is commonly involved in the reactions catalyzed by hydratases during beta oxidation?
Which type of bond is commonly involved in the reactions catalyzed by hydratases during beta oxidation?
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In beta oxidation, what is removed by decarboxylases, which are a type of lyase enzyme?
In beta oxidation, what is removed by decarboxylases, which are a type of lyase enzyme?
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What physiological process involves the reactions catalyzed by amylase, hydratases, and decarboxylases?
What physiological process involves the reactions catalyzed by amylase, hydratases, and decarboxylases?
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Which enzyme class catalyzes reactions that involve group transfer through an intramolecular process?
Which enzyme class catalyzes reactions that involve group transfer through an intramolecular process?
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What is the main function of ligases in catalyzing reactions?
What is the main function of ligases in catalyzing reactions?
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Which enzyme class is responsible for dehydrating or eliminating water molecules from a substrate?
Which enzyme class is responsible for dehydrating or eliminating water molecules from a substrate?
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What is the specific function of epimerases among isomerases?
What is the specific function of epimerases among isomerases?
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In the context of enzyme classes, what do mutases specifically involve?
In the context of enzyme classes, what do mutases specifically involve?
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"X"-ligases are examples of which specific type of ligase?
"X"-ligases are examples of which specific type of ligase?
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"Synthase" and "synthetase" can be used synonymously with which term?
"Synthase" and "synthetase" can be used synonymously with which term?
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"X"-transferase is most likely associated with which type of enzyme class based on the information provided?
"X"-transferase is most likely associated with which type of enzyme class based on the information provided?
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"Aconitate hydratase" is an example related to the isomerization of which two compounds in the Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)?
"Aconitate hydratase" is an example related to the isomerization of which two compounds in the Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)?
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What type of bonds are formed between water molecules?
What type of bonds are formed between water molecules?
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Which of the following is NOT an unusual property of water?
Which of the following is NOT an unusual property of water?
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How many other water molecules does each water molecule form hydrogen bonds with?
How many other water molecules does each water molecule form hydrogen bonds with?
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What property of water helps it dissolve many substances?
What property of water helps it dissolve many substances?
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At what temperature does water have its highest density?
At what temperature does water have its highest density?
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Which type of bond is stronger, a hydrogen bond or a covalent bond?
Which type of bond is stronger, a hydrogen bond or a covalent bond?
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What property of water enables it to have a high specific heat capacity?
What property of water enables it to have a high specific heat capacity?
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What is the pKa of the bicarbonate buffer system?
What is the pKa of the bicarbonate buffer system?
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Which compartment has higher buffering power according to the text?
Which compartment has higher buffering power according to the text?
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What two components make up the bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer system?
What two components make up the bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer system?
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Which enzyme plays a crucial role in the equilibrium between H2CO3, H+, and HCO3-?
Which enzyme plays a crucial role in the equilibrium between H2CO3, H+, and HCO3-?
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Why is the bicarbonate buffer system considered more effective in extracellular fluid?
Why is the bicarbonate buffer system considered more effective in extracellular fluid?
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Which system has a major buffering capacity in the extracellular fluid?
Which system has a major buffering capacity in the extracellular fluid?
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What is the approximate concentration of bicarbonate ions in the intracellular compartment?
What is the approximate concentration of bicarbonate ions in the intracellular compartment?
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What is the purpose of the Henderson-Hasselbach equation?
What is the purpose of the Henderson-Hasselbach equation?
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At a pH of 3.74 for acetic acid, what is the significance of the ratio of salt/acid?
At a pH of 3.74 for acetic acid, what is the significance of the ratio of salt/acid?
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In what scenario would acetic acid buffer best?
In what scenario would acetic acid buffer best?
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What happens when the pH equals the pKa value for acetic acid?
What happens when the pH equals the pKa value for acetic acid?
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For acetic acid at a pH of 6.74, what does the ratio of salt/acid indicate?
For acetic acid at a pH of 6.74, what does the ratio of salt/acid indicate?
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What does the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation calculate?
What does the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation calculate?
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Which statement best describes the behavior of acetic acid as a buffer around its pKa value?
Which statement best describes the behavior of acetic acid as a buffer around its pKa value?
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What is the primary role of carbonic anhydrase in the process described?
What is the primary role of carbonic anhydrase in the process described?
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At what pH level is the ratio of bicarbonate to carbonic acid determined according to the provided information?
At what pH level is the ratio of bicarbonate to carbonic acid determined according to the provided information?
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Which organ system can modify the rate of bicarbonate excretion?
Which organ system can modify the rate of bicarbonate excretion?
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What happens to H2CO3 when the red blood cell reaches the lungs based on the text?
What happens to H2CO3 when the red blood cell reaches the lungs based on the text?
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What is the function of the HCO3-/Cl- transporter in red blood cells?
What is the function of the HCO3-/Cl- transporter in red blood cells?
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Which process allows the lungs to modify the rate of CO2 removal?
Which process allows the lungs to modify the rate of CO2 removal?
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What happens to HCO3- when reaching the lungs according to the text?
What happens to HCO3- when reaching the lungs according to the text?
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Why is carbonic anhydrase considered important in the process described in the text?
Why is carbonic anhydrase considered important in the process described in the text?
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What allows for the modification of bicarbonate excretion by the kidneys?
What allows for the modification of bicarbonate excretion by the kidneys?
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Which of the following best describes anabolism?
Which of the following best describes anabolism?
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Where does gluconeogenesis primarily occur in the cell?
Where does gluconeogenesis primarily occur in the cell?
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What is the primary purpose of ketogenesis in metabolism?
What is the primary purpose of ketogenesis in metabolism?
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Under anaerobic conditions, what is the end product of glycolysis?
Under anaerobic conditions, what is the end product of glycolysis?
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Which pathway involves the breakdown of glycogen into glucose?
Which pathway involves the breakdown of glycogen into glucose?
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In metabolism, what is the primary function of lipogenesis?
In metabolism, what is the primary function of lipogenesis?
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Where does beta-oxidation primarily take place in cells?
Where does beta-oxidation primarily take place in cells?
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When there is a lack of oxygen, pyruvate converts to lactate rather than?
When there is a lack of oxygen, pyruvate converts to lactate rather than?
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What is the primary purpose of gluconeogenesis?
What is the primary purpose of gluconeogenesis?
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What is a key function of the citric acid cycle (CAC) in energy production?
What is a key function of the citric acid cycle (CAC) in energy production?
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What is the main site of gluconeogenesis in the body?
What is the main site of gluconeogenesis in the body?
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What molecules can serve as substrates for gluconeogenesis?
What molecules can serve as substrates for gluconeogenesis?
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What is the end product of fatty acid breakdown that can enter the citric acid cycle?
What is the end product of fatty acid breakdown that can enter the citric acid cycle?
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What is the primary function of the pentose phosphate shunt described in the text?
What is the primary function of the pentose phosphate shunt described in the text?
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In the context of energy production, what are fats broken down into?
In the context of energy production, what are fats broken down into?
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If fatty acids are not needed for energy, how are they stored for later use?
If fatty acids are not needed for energy, how are they stored for later use?
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What connection exists between excess glucose and fatty acid synthesis?
What connection exists between excess glucose and fatty acid synthesis?
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What is the next step if more energy is required after breaking down fatty acids?
What is the next step if more energy is required after breaking down fatty acids?
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When making fatty acids in excess quantities, what role does ATP play in the process?
When making fatty acids in excess quantities, what role does ATP play in the process?
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Which organelle is responsible for the production of ketone bodies?
Which organelle is responsible for the production of ketone bodies?
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What is the final electron acceptor in the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) for the production of water?
What is the final electron acceptor in the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) for the production of water?
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Which pathway can lead to the production of Acetyl CoA that feeds into the Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)?
Which pathway can lead to the production of Acetyl CoA that feeds into the Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)?
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What compound is primarily responsible for driving ATP synthesis in the ETC?
What compound is primarily responsible for driving ATP synthesis in the ETC?
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Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of Fatty AcylCoA to Fatty Acids in the mitochondria?
Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of Fatty AcylCoA to Fatty Acids in the mitochondria?
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In which compartment does the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) occur within the mitochondria?
In which compartment does the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) occur within the mitochondria?
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Which of the following is NOT an irreversible reaction in glycolysis?
Which of the following is NOT an irreversible reaction in glycolysis?
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Where does gluconeogenesis primarily occur?
Where does gluconeogenesis primarily occur?
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Why is gluconeogenesis particularly important during times of fasting?
Why is gluconeogenesis particularly important during times of fasting?
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Which process involves the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors?
Which process involves the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors?
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What are the main regulated steps of glycolysis discussed in the text?
What are the main regulated steps of glycolysis discussed in the text?
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What is the purpose of gluconeogenesis in metabolism?
What is the purpose of gluconeogenesis in metabolism?
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Which substrates feed into gluconeogenesis according to the text?
Which substrates feed into gluconeogenesis according to the text?
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What is the main difference between glycolysis and gluconeogenesis?
What is the main difference between glycolysis and gluconeogenesis?
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What is the function of lactate dehydrogenase in the Cori Cycle?
What is the function of lactate dehydrogenase in the Cori Cycle?
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How does glycerol enter the gluconeogenesis pathway?
How does glycerol enter the gluconeogenesis pathway?
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Which precursors can be used in gluconeogenesis besides lactate and glycerol?
Which precursors can be used in gluconeogenesis besides lactate and glycerol?
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Why is lactate transported from tissues to the liver via the blood in gluconeogenesis?
Why is lactate transported from tissues to the liver via the blood in gluconeogenesis?
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What role do glucogenic amino acids play in supporting gluconeogenesis?
What role do glucogenic amino acids play in supporting gluconeogenesis?
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Which pathway is supported by the conversion of pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions?
Which pathway is supported by the conversion of pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions?
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What is the significance of the Cori Cycle in energy metabolism?
What is the significance of the Cori Cycle in energy metabolism?
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Why is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors important?
Why is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors important?
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Which enzyme is responsible for carboxylation of pyruvate in the gluconeogenesis pathway?
Which enzyme is responsible for carboxylation of pyruvate in the gluconeogenesis pathway?
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What is the main symptom associated with very rare inherited disorders of gluconeogenesis?
What is the main symptom associated with very rare inherited disorders of gluconeogenesis?
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Which glycolytic intermediate can continue through the reversible reactions of glycolysis in the gluconeogenesis pathway?
Which glycolytic intermediate can continue through the reversible reactions of glycolysis in the gluconeogenesis pathway?
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In gluconeogenesis, which enzyme is involved in the conversion of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate?
In gluconeogenesis, which enzyme is involved in the conversion of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate?
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Which enzyme in the gluconeogenesis pathway is involved in converting glucose-6-phosphate to glucose?
Which enzyme in the gluconeogenesis pathway is involved in converting glucose-6-phosphate to glucose?
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What is the metabolic condition usually associated with individuals presenting early in life with poor growth and development, drowsiness, tremors, and seizures?
What is the metabolic condition usually associated with individuals presenting early in life with poor growth and development, drowsiness, tremors, and seizures?
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Which enzyme deficiency leads to the accumulation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate in individuals with a metabolic disorder?
Which enzyme deficiency leads to the accumulation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate in individuals with a metabolic disorder?
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Which molecule is converted from oxaloacetate to enter gluconeogenesis through the malate shuttle system?
Which molecule is converted from oxaloacetate to enter gluconeogenesis through the malate shuttle system?
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What is the primary function of the malate shuttle system in gluconeogenesis?
What is the primary function of the malate shuttle system in gluconeogenesis?
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In the context of glycerol entering gluconeogenesis, what substance can glycerol be converted to?
In the context of glycerol entering gluconeogenesis, what substance can glycerol be converted to?
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Which shuttle system is utilized when lactate is the substrate entering gluconeogenesis?
Which shuttle system is utilized when lactate is the substrate entering gluconeogenesis?
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What is the final product of oxaloacetate conversion that allows for the continuation of gluconeogenesis?
What is the final product of oxaloacetate conversion that allows for the continuation of gluconeogenesis?
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Which amino acid serves as the starting substrate for the malate shuttle system in gluconeogenesis?
Which amino acid serves as the starting substrate for the malate shuttle system in gluconeogenesis?
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In the context of entering gluconeogenesis, what is lactate converted to before participating in this process?
In the context of entering gluconeogenesis, what is lactate converted to before participating in this process?
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Which substance is shuttled out of the mitochondria to continue with gluconeogenesis after being converted from oxaloacetate?
Which substance is shuttled out of the mitochondria to continue with gluconeogenesis after being converted from oxaloacetate?
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What defines the internal energy of a system?
What defines the internal energy of a system?
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In thermodynamics, what does a reaction that releases heat indicate?
In thermodynamics, what does a reaction that releases heat indicate?
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What does the Second Law of Thermodynamics state about systems?
What does the Second Law of Thermodynamics state about systems?
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Which term describes how energy is 'spread out' in a system?
Which term describes how energy is 'spread out' in a system?
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What directly measures the change in enthalpy when reactants form products?
What directly measures the change in enthalpy when reactants form products?
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Which type of reaction has a positive ΔH and is often not spontaneous?
Which type of reaction has a positive ΔH and is often not spontaneous?
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What is the primary factor that determines if a bond is polar or not?
What is the primary factor that determines if a bond is polar or not?
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'Enthalpy' simplifies to represent the energy content of which component within a system?
'Enthalpy' simplifies to represent the energy content of which component within a system?
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What tends to indicate a spontaneous reaction based on the laws of thermodynamics?
What tends to indicate a spontaneous reaction based on the laws of thermodynamics?
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Which factor makes a chemical reaction spontaneous according to the Laws of Thermodynamics?
Which factor makes a chemical reaction spontaneous according to the Laws of Thermodynamics?
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What type of reaction is indicated by a positive Gibbs Free Energy value?
What type of reaction is indicated by a positive Gibbs Free Energy value?
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Why does a chemical reaction need a spark?
Why does a chemical reaction need a spark?
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What is the significance of ΔG=0 in a chemical reaction?
What is the significance of ΔG=0 in a chemical reaction?
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What does a negative ΔG value signify for a chemical reaction?
What does a negative ΔG value signify for a chemical reaction?
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Which factor is taken into account by Gibbs Free Energy that affects the spontaneity of a reaction?
Which factor is taken into account by Gibbs Free Energy that affects the spontaneity of a reaction?
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Why do exothermic reactions tend to be spontaneous?
Why do exothermic reactions tend to be spontaneous?
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For which type of reaction would the Gibbs free energy change be most negative?
For which type of reaction would the Gibbs free energy change be most negative?
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Under what condition would a reaction be considered non-spontaneous?
Under what condition would a reaction be considered non-spontaneous?
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In a hypothetical reaction with a positive ΔGoʼ value, when would the reaction be spontaneous?
In a hypothetical reaction with a positive ΔGoʼ value, when would the reaction be spontaneous?
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What impact do non-standard conditions have on the Gibbs free energy of a reaction?
What impact do non-standard conditions have on the Gibbs free energy of a reaction?
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Which reaction from the given list is likely to be the most spontaneous?
Which reaction from the given list is likely to be the most spontaneous?
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At what pH and temperature is the standard Gibbs free energy calculated?
At what pH and temperature is the standard Gibbs free energy calculated?
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How does increasing the concentration of reactants impact the spontaneity of a reaction?
How does increasing the concentration of reactants impact the spontaneity of a reaction?
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What role does RT ln have in calculating the non-standard Gibbs free energy change?
What role does RT ln have in calculating the non-standard Gibbs free energy change?
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In which situation does the text mention that reactions with a fairly large +ΔG can develop into exergonic reactions?
In which situation does the text mention that reactions with a fairly large +ΔG can develop into exergonic reactions?
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What strategy is commonly used to drive some endergonic reactions forward in glycolysis according to the text?
What strategy is commonly used to drive some endergonic reactions forward in glycolysis according to the text?
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How is it possible that a reaction with a positive ΔGoʼ still occurs in our bodies, as mentioned in the text?
How is it possible that a reaction with a positive ΔGoʼ still occurs in our bodies, as mentioned in the text?
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What is the significance of a positive ΔGoʼ value for a reaction like Glucose + Pi Glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis?
What is the significance of a positive ΔGoʼ value for a reaction like Glucose + Pi Glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis?
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Which type of reactions does the text specifically mention as a common strategy in biochemical and cellular situations?
Which type of reactions does the text specifically mention as a common strategy in biochemical and cellular situations?
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What is the role of having significantly more reactants than products in driving reactions forward?
What is the role of having significantly more reactants than products in driving reactions forward?
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Which scenario allows reactions with large positive ΔG values to become exergonic?
Which scenario allows reactions with large positive ΔG values to become exergonic?
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What type of reactions can develop into exergonic reactions if there is a significant difference between reactants and products?
What type of reactions can develop into exergonic reactions if there is a significant difference between reactants and products?
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Why might a reaction with a positive ΔGoʼ still occur in our bodies?
Why might a reaction with a positive ΔGoʼ still occur in our bodies?
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Which common strategy is used to drive endergonic reactions forward in glycolysis and other biochemical processes?
Which common strategy is used to drive endergonic reactions forward in glycolysis and other biochemical processes?
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What is the main key enzyme for transcription?
What is the main key enzyme for transcription?
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Which factor is essential for RNA polymerase to recognize where to start transcription?
Which factor is essential for RNA polymerase to recognize where to start transcription?
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During transcription, in which direction does RNA polymerase work on the DNA template?
During transcription, in which direction does RNA polymerase work on the DNA template?
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What is the error rate of RNA polymerase in terms of nucleotides?
What is the error rate of RNA polymerase in terms of nucleotides?
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In eukaryotes, which sequence is recognized by transcription initiation factors like TFII for RNA polymerase to start transcription?
In eukaryotes, which sequence is recognized by transcription initiation factors like TFII for RNA polymerase to start transcription?
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Which stage of transcription involves the creation of a new phosphodiester bond on the forming RNA strand?
Which stage of transcription involves the creation of a new phosphodiester bond on the forming RNA strand?
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'Template strand' in transcription corresponds to which direction on the DNA sequence?
'Template strand' in transcription corresponds to which direction on the DNA sequence?
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'Non-template strand' in transcription corresponds to which direction on the DNA sequence?
'Non-template strand' in transcription corresponds to which direction on the DNA sequence?
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Where does transcription occur?
Where does transcription occur?
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What region of a gene contains a consensus sequence?
What region of a gene contains a consensus sequence?
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What is the function of the Terminator region in transcription?
What is the function of the Terminator region in transcription?
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Which enzyme is responsible for synthesizing an RNA molecule from a DNA template?
Which enzyme is responsible for synthesizing an RNA molecule from a DNA template?
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Which strand of DNA is transcribed into RNA during the transcription process?
Which strand of DNA is transcribed into RNA during the transcription process?
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What is the main function of RNA in protein synthesis according to the text?
What is the main function of RNA in protein synthesis according to the text?
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Where does translation occur?
Where does translation occur?
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What is the role of tRNA in translation?
What is the role of tRNA in translation?
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What happens when repressor proteins bind upstream sequences on DNA known as silencers?
What happens when repressor proteins bind upstream sequences on DNA known as silencers?
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Which proteins bind upstream sequences called enhancers?
Which proteins bind upstream sequences called enhancers?
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What is the main function of elongation factors in transcription?
What is the main function of elongation factors in transcription?
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In transcription, what is the role of various elongation factors?
In transcription, what is the role of various elongation factors?
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What might occur if there was a mutation in a repressor protein binding site?
What might occur if there was a mutation in a repressor protein binding site?
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How do activator proteins influence transcription rates?
How do activator proteins influence transcription rates?
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What is the consequence of elongation factors helping RNA Polymerase during transcription?
What is the consequence of elongation factors helping RNA Polymerase during transcription?
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What is the role of chromatin remodeling complexes in eukaryotic elongation?
What is the role of chromatin remodeling complexes in eukaryotic elongation?
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How does DNA topoisomerase function in eukaryotic elongation?
How does DNA topoisomerase function in eukaryotic elongation?
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What is the purpose of the 7-methyl guanosine cap added to pre-mRNA transcripts in eukaryotes?
What is the purpose of the 7-methyl guanosine cap added to pre-mRNA transcripts in eukaryotes?
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What is the primary function of histone chaperones during eukaryotic elongation?
What is the primary function of histone chaperones during eukaryotic elongation?
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During elongation, what occurs once approximately 25 nucleotides of RNA have been transcribed?
During elongation, what occurs once approximately 25 nucleotides of RNA have been transcribed?
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What is the function of DNA topoisomerase in resolving super-helical tension during elongation?
What is the function of DNA topoisomerase in resolving super-helical tension during elongation?
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Which process occurs at Step 3 - Processing during eukaryotic elongation?
Which process occurs at Step 3 - Processing during eukaryotic elongation?
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In cell regulation of protein synthesis, which factor determines the amount of a particular protein available to a cell?
In cell regulation of protein synthesis, which factor determines the amount of a particular protein available to a cell?
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What role do chromatin remodeling complexes play in transcription regulation?
What role do chromatin remodeling complexes play in transcription regulation?
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Which modification tends to open chromatin and increase transcription during transcription regulation?
Which modification tends to open chromatin and increase transcription during transcription regulation?
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What is the main purpose of histone methylation in transcriptional regulation?
What is the main purpose of histone methylation in transcriptional regulation?
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Which enzyme is responsible for histone acetylation during transcription regulation?
Which enzyme is responsible for histone acetylation during transcription regulation?
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What is the result of DNA methylation during transcription regulation?
What is the result of DNA methylation during transcription regulation?
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How do histone modifications impact the regulation of protein synthesis?
How do histone modifications impact the regulation of protein synthesis?
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How can the stability of an mRNA affect protein synthesis?
How can the stability of an mRNA affect protein synthesis?
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Which type of RNA can promote the destruction of mRNA transcripts?
Which type of RNA can promote the destruction of mRNA transcripts?
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What is the role of specific proteins in relation to mRNA degradation?
What is the role of specific proteins in relation to mRNA degradation?
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Which cellular location requires translation on free ribosomes in the cytosol?
Which cellular location requires translation on free ribosomes in the cytosol?
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What is the process called when proteins are directed to the rough ER for translation?
What is the process called when proteins are directed to the rough ER for translation?
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Which sequence is translated to bind a signal recognition particle (SRP) during protein targeting?
Which sequence is translated to bind a signal recognition particle (SRP) during protein targeting?
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In co-translational transfer, where does translation initially begin before directing proteins to specific cellular locations?
In co-translational transfer, where does translation initially begin before directing proteins to specific cellular locations?
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What is the function of a specific amino acid signal in a polypeptide during protein translation?
What is the function of a specific amino acid signal in a polypeptide during protein translation?
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What is the function of SRP when it binds to a SRP receptor?
What is the function of SRP when it binds to a SRP receptor?
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What happens when a protein with a stop transfer sequence encounters the translocator?
What happens when a protein with a stop transfer sequence encounters the translocator?
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In the process of targeting a protein to cell membranes, what is discharged by the translocator into the ER membrane?
In the process of targeting a protein to cell membranes, what is discharged by the translocator into the ER membrane?
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What happens to the signal peptide sequence once the protein is in the RER?
What happens to the signal peptide sequence once the protein is in the RER?
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In proteins intended for cell membrane insertion, what feature is associated with the stop transfer sequence?
In proteins intended for cell membrane insertion, what feature is associated with the stop transfer sequence?
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Which organelle is primarily involved in discharging polypeptides into the phospholipid bilayer during targeting?
Which organelle is primarily involved in discharging polypeptides into the phospholipid bilayer during targeting?
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What effect does the presence of a stop transfer sequence have on translation?
What effect does the presence of a stop transfer sequence have on translation?
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What is the basis for nucleic acid according to the text?
What is the basis for nucleic acid according to the text?
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Which biomolecule serves as the intermediate for protein synthesis according to the text?
Which biomolecule serves as the intermediate for protein synthesis according to the text?
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What are the 3 components of a nucleotide, as stated in the text?
What are the 3 components of a nucleotide, as stated in the text?
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Why does Adenine (A) always pair with Thymine (T) in DNA structure?
Why does Adenine (A) always pair with Thymine (T) in DNA structure?
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According to Chargaff’s rule, why must the number of purines equal pyrimidines in DNA?
According to Chargaff’s rule, why must the number of purines equal pyrimidines in DNA?
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What is the 3D structure of DNA called as per the text?
What is the 3D structure of DNA called as per the text?
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What holds the two DNA strands together in the double helix structure?
What holds the two DNA strands together in the double helix structure?
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What is the role of purines in DNA structure?
What is the role of purines in DNA structure?
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Which type of RNA directly degrades specific mRNA molecules to reduce gene expression?
Which type of RNA directly degrades specific mRNA molecules to reduce gene expression?
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What is the main function of lncRNA in gene regulation?
What is the main function of lncRNA in gene regulation?
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Which type of RNA is an adaptor between mRNA and amino acids during protein synthesis?
Which type of RNA is an adaptor between mRNA and amino acids during protein synthesis?
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What is the primary function of siRNA in gene regulation?
What is the primary function of siRNA in gene regulation?
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Which RNA molecule is involved in splicing pre-mRNA?
Which RNA molecule is involved in splicing pre-mRNA?
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What is the function of mRNA in the context of gene expression?
What is the function of mRNA in the context of gene expression?
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What is the primary function of rRNA in protein synthesis?
What is the primary function of rRNA in protein synthesis?
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Which region of tRNA is responsible for pairing with the codon on mRNA?
Which region of tRNA is responsible for pairing with the codon on mRNA?
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According to the Wobble Hypothesis, why are there fewer tRNAs than possible codons?
According to the Wobble Hypothesis, why are there fewer tRNAs than possible codons?
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What is the purpose of the amino acid binding site on tRNA?
What is the purpose of the amino acid binding site on tRNA?
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Which RNA molecule directly carries the genetic information for protein synthesis?
Which RNA molecule directly carries the genetic information for protein synthesis?
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What role does the Wobble Hypothesis play in the translation process?
What role does the Wobble Hypothesis play in the translation process?
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Which statement best describes the importance of tRNA in translation?
Which statement best describes the importance of tRNA in translation?
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Which part of a tRNA molecule binds to a specific amino acid?
Which part of a tRNA molecule binds to a specific amino acid?
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Why is it crucial that some tRNAs can tolerate a mismatch in the third position of a codon?
Why is it crucial that some tRNAs can tolerate a mismatch in the third position of a codon?
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How does RNA differ from DNA chemically?
How does RNA differ from DNA chemically?
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What is the function of messenger RNA (mRNA) in the central dogma?
What is the function of messenger RNA (mRNA) in the central dogma?
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What is the function of small nuclear RNA (snRNA) in the cell?
What is the function of small nuclear RNA (snRNA) in the cell?
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Which type of RNA does not get translated into proteins?
Which type of RNA does not get translated into proteins?
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What is the primary role of non-coding RNA in cellular processes?
What is the primary role of non-coding RNA in cellular processes?
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What happens to pre-mRNA after it undergoes processing?
What happens to pre-mRNA after it undergoes processing?
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How does tRNA contribute to protein translation?
How does tRNA contribute to protein translation?
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What is the structural difference between DNA and RNA?
What is the structural difference between DNA and RNA?
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What is the role of ribose sugar in RNA?
What is the role of ribose sugar in RNA?
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What term describes the disruption in folding or shape of a protein due to the breakdown of bonds holding it together?
What term describes the disruption in folding or shape of a protein due to the breakdown of bonds holding it together?
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Which of the following could disrupt protein structure by disrupting hydrophobic, polar, and charged interactions?
Which of the following could disrupt protein structure by disrupting hydrophobic, polar, and charged interactions?
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What kind of agents can denature proteins by either adding or removing hydrogens?
What kind of agents can denature proteins by either adding or removing hydrogens?
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Which heavy metals, based on their charge, are likely to bind to amino acid side chains within proteins?
Which heavy metals, based on their charge, are likely to bind to amino acid side chains within proteins?
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What kind of interactions within a protein are disrupted when heavy metals bind to amino acid side chains?
What kind of interactions within a protein are disrupted when heavy metals bind to amino acid side chains?
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Which type of agents can denature proteins by disrupting polar and charged interactions within the protein structure?
Which type of agents can denature proteins by disrupting polar and charged interactions within the protein structure?
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How does lead poisoning affect the synthesis of hemoglobin in the body?
How does lead poisoning affect the synthesis of hemoglobin in the body?
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In the context of enzymes, what is the significance of cofactors and coenzymes?
In the context of enzymes, what is the significance of cofactors and coenzymes?
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Why are enzymes necessary for biochemical reactions in the body?
Why are enzymes necessary for biochemical reactions in the body?
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What is the primary role of enzymes in our body?
What is the primary role of enzymes in our body?
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Which type of protein do enzymes belong to?
Which type of protein do enzymes belong to?
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How do heavy metals like lead affect the shape of proteins?
How do heavy metals like lead affect the shape of proteins?
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What is the primary role of enzymes in specific reactions?
What is the primary role of enzymes in specific reactions?
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Why are enzymes considered highly specific in catalyzing reactions?
Why are enzymes considered highly specific in catalyzing reactions?
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What is the biochemically recognized term for the minimal energy needed for a reaction to occur?
What is the biochemically recognized term for the minimal energy needed for a reaction to occur?
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Which type of enzyme specificity is enforced by amino acids in the active site?
Which type of enzyme specificity is enforced by amino acids in the active site?
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What defines the transition state in a chemical reaction?
What defines the transition state in a chemical reaction?
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Why is lowering the activation energy critical in biochemical reactions?
Why is lowering the activation energy critical in biochemical reactions?
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What is the enzyme-substrate complex known as?
What is the enzyme-substrate complex known as?
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Which model describes the conformational change in the shape of the enzyme upon substrate binding?
Which model describes the conformational change in the shape of the enzyme upon substrate binding?
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In enzyme mechanisms, how may catalytic groups speed up reactions?
In enzyme mechanisms, how may catalytic groups speed up reactions?
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Which amino acid side chain acts as a general acid or base, facilitating the addition or removal of protons?
Which amino acid side chain acts as a general acid or base, facilitating the addition or removal of protons?
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What allows for electrostatic interactions to form between the correct substrate and enzyme?
What allows for electrostatic interactions to form between the correct substrate and enzyme?
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How does acid-base catalysis contribute to making a substrate more reactive?
How does acid-base catalysis contribute to making a substrate more reactive?
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Which type of catalysis involves the addition or removal of a proton from a substrate?
Which type of catalysis involves the addition or removal of a proton from a substrate?
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'Catalytic groups may speed up reactions in two main ways: Acid-base catalysis and...?'
'Catalytic groups may speed up reactions in two main ways: Acid-base catalysis and...?'
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'Which side chains of amino acids facilitate adding or removing protons?' This question tests for:
'Which side chains of amino acids facilitate adding or removing protons?' This question tests for:
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Which amino acids are considered glucogenic?
Which amino acids are considered glucogenic?
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What is the key enzyme involved in the conversion of alanine to pyruvate?
What is the key enzyme involved in the conversion of alanine to pyruvate?
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Which process involves the immediate shuttling of pyruvate into mitochondria?
Which process involves the immediate shuttling of pyruvate into mitochondria?
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What is the primary function of glycerol kinase in metabolism?
What is the primary function of glycerol kinase in metabolism?
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In gluconeogenesis, which molecules serve as substrates?
In gluconeogenesis, which molecules serve as substrates?
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What is the fate of pyruvate once inside the mitochondria during gluconeogenesis?
What is the fate of pyruvate once inside the mitochondria during gluconeogenesis?
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Which amino acid is converted to pyruvate through transamination involving PLP as a coenzyme?
Which amino acid is converted to pyruvate through transamination involving PLP as a coenzyme?
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What is the significance of glucogenic amino acids in metabolism?
What is the significance of glucogenic amino acids in metabolism?
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Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of lactate to pyruvate in the cytosol?
Which enzyme is responsible for the conversion of lactate to pyruvate in the cytosol?
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What is the primary purpose of Gluconeogenesis?
What is the primary purpose of Gluconeogenesis?
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Which two organs are primarily involved in the process of Gluconeogenesis?
Which two organs are primarily involved in the process of Gluconeogenesis?
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What are the substrates that feed into Gluconeogenesis?
What are the substrates that feed into Gluconeogenesis?
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What is the significance of the three irreversible reactions mentioned in the text with respect to glycolysis?
What is the significance of the three irreversible reactions mentioned in the text with respect to glycolysis?
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Thinking Question: Is Gluconeogenesis merely a reverse of Glycolysis? Why or why not?
Thinking Question: Is Gluconeogenesis merely a reverse of Glycolysis? Why or why not?
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When Gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver and kidney during fasting, what is its primary role?
When Gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver and kidney during fasting, what is its primary role?
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What makes Gluconeogenesis particularly important during times of fasting?
What makes Gluconeogenesis particularly important during times of fasting?
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What is the role of oxaloacetate in gluconeogenesis?
What is the role of oxaloacetate in gluconeogenesis?
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Which shuttle system is used when lactate is the starting substrate for gluconeogenesis?
Which shuttle system is used when lactate is the starting substrate for gluconeogenesis?
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In the malate shuttle system, where is malate converted back to oxaloacetate?
In the malate shuttle system, where is malate converted back to oxaloacetate?
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Which substrate can enter gluconeogenesis by being converted to phosphoenolpyruvate?
Which substrate can enter gluconeogenesis by being converted to phosphoenolpyruvate?
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What is the function of the malate-aspartate shuttle?
What is the function of the malate-aspartate shuttle?
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Which compound is involved in the malate shuttle system for gluconeogenesis?
Which compound is involved in the malate shuttle system for gluconeogenesis?
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What is the fate of phosphoenolpyruvate in gluconeogenesis?
What is the fate of phosphoenolpyruvate in gluconeogenesis?
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Which substance needs a shuttle system due to its inability to cross the inner mitochondrial membrane?
Which substance needs a shuttle system due to its inability to cross the inner mitochondrial membrane?
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In gluconeogenesis, which enzyme is responsible for adding a CO2 molecule to pyruvate during reaction 1a?
In gluconeogenesis, which enzyme is responsible for adding a CO2 molecule to pyruvate during reaction 1a?
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Which enzyme is involved in bypass reaction 2 of gluconeogenesis, converting fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate?
Which enzyme is involved in bypass reaction 2 of gluconeogenesis, converting fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate?
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Which glycolytic intermediate can continue through the reversible reactions of gluconeogenesis until reaching fructose 1,6-bisphosphate?
Which glycolytic intermediate can continue through the reversible reactions of gluconeogenesis until reaching fructose 1,6-bisphosphate?
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Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate in gluconeogenesis?
Which enzyme catalyzes the conversion of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate in gluconeogenesis?
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Which of the following enzymes is NOT involved in gluconeogenesis?
Which of the following enzymes is NOT involved in gluconeogenesis?
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What is the endpoint of bypass reaction 3 in gluconeogenesis?
What is the endpoint of bypass reaction 3 in gluconeogenesis?
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Which disorder of gluconeogenesis typically presents with symptoms like poor growth, drowsiness, tremors, and seizures early in life?
Which disorder of gluconeogenesis typically presents with symptoms like poor growth, drowsiness, tremors, and seizures early in life?
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'Gluconeogenesis' primarily involves the synthesis of which molecule in cellular metabolism?
'Gluconeogenesis' primarily involves the synthesis of which molecule in cellular metabolism?
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What type of charge do amino acids have at pH = 7?
What type of charge do amino acids have at pH = 7?
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In the nitrogen cycle, where does the nitrogen come from that plants convert into amino acids?
In the nitrogen cycle, where does the nitrogen come from that plants convert into amino acids?
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What is the key role of plants in the nitrogen cycle in relation to amino acids?
What is the key role of plants in the nitrogen cycle in relation to amino acids?
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What happens once animals ingest plants containing amino acids?
What happens once animals ingest plants containing amino acids?
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At pH = 7, how do amino acids behave in terms of acidity and basicity?
At pH = 7, how do amino acids behave in terms of acidity and basicity?
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What is the source of nitrogen that eventually returns back to the soil and atmosphere in the nitrogen cycle?
What is the source of nitrogen that eventually returns back to the soil and atmosphere in the nitrogen cycle?
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Why is it important for bacteria to convert nitrogen into forms assimilated by plants?
Why is it important for bacteria to convert nitrogen into forms assimilated by plants?
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What is the significance of amino acids being amphoteric?
What is the significance of amino acids being amphoteric?
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Which subset of essential amino acids is known as branched chain amino acids (BCAA’s)?
Which subset of essential amino acids is known as branched chain amino acids (BCAA’s)?
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Which of the following amino acids are considered essential and not made de novo in mammals?
Which of the following amino acids are considered essential and not made de novo in mammals?
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What is the main reason plant products are not usually considered complete proteins?
What is the main reason plant products are not usually considered complete proteins?
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Which amino acid classification group includes the phrase 'Any Help In Learning These Little Molecules Proves Truly Valuable'?
Which amino acid classification group includes the phrase 'Any Help In Learning These Little Molecules Proves Truly Valuable'?
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What do complete proteins contain in sufficient amounts to support health?
What do complete proteins contain in sufficient amounts to support health?
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Why are histidine and arginine considered essential amino acids in infants but not in adults?
Why are histidine and arginine considered essential amino acids in infants but not in adults?
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Which protein source is generally not considered complete as it lacks certain essential amino acids?
Which protein source is generally not considered complete as it lacks certain essential amino acids?
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What is the role of soy in the context of complete proteins?
What is the role of soy in the context of complete proteins?
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What is a characteristic of quinoa that sets it apart from other plant protein sources?
What is a characteristic of quinoa that sets it apart from other plant protein sources?
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Which type of bonding can both the hydroxy and amido groups participate in?
Which type of bonding can both the hydroxy and amido groups participate in?
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In amino acid anabolism, what is the direct way nitrogen can be incorporated into an amino acid?
In amino acid anabolism, what is the direct way nitrogen can be incorporated into an amino acid?
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Which coenzyme is mentioned in the text with a function related to anemia, spina bifida, and cancer?
Which coenzyme is mentioned in the text with a function related to anemia, spina bifida, and cancer?
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What is the primary function of histamine as outlined in the text?
What is the primary function of histamine as outlined in the text?
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In transamination, which ketoacid is paired with glutamate for amino group transfer?
In transamination, which ketoacid is paired with glutamate for amino group transfer?
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Which amino acid is paired with oxaloacetate in the context of transamination?
Which amino acid is paired with oxaloacetate in the context of transamination?
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In amino acid anabolism, what is the specific indirect method that involves transferring an amino group from one amino acid to a ketoacid?
In amino acid anabolism, what is the specific indirect method that involves transferring an amino group from one amino acid to a ketoacid?
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What is the unique property of proline that distinguishes it from other amino acids?
What is the unique property of proline that distinguishes it from other amino acids?
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Which amino acid group contains a sulfur atom and can form disulfide bonds?
Which amino acid group contains a sulfur atom and can form disulfide bonds?
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What is the role of the thiol group in cysteine?
What is the role of the thiol group in cysteine?
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Which two amino acids are noted for their ability to bind metals due to the presence of sulfur?
Which two amino acids are noted for their ability to bind metals due to the presence of sulfur?
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What is the significance of having an OH group on Serine and Threonine?
What is the significance of having an OH group on Serine and Threonine?
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Which category of amino acids is most likely to be involved in hydrophobic interactions within proteins?
Which category of amino acids is most likely to be involved in hydrophobic interactions within proteins?
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Which unique property of Cysteine makes it important in oxidative stress response?
Which unique property of Cysteine makes it important in oxidative stress response?
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What is the primary function of the thiol group in Cysteine within proteins?
What is the primary function of the thiol group in Cysteine within proteins?
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What property makes Cysteine and Methionine suitable for binding metal ions within proteins?
What property makes Cysteine and Methionine suitable for binding metal ions within proteins?
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Which coenzyme is required for transaminations as mentioned in the text?
Which coenzyme is required for transaminations as mentioned in the text?
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Which liver enzymes are typically responsible for transaminations involving alanine and aspartate?
Which liver enzymes are typically responsible for transaminations involving alanine and aspartate?
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Elevated levels of which enzymes in the blood may indicate liver problems?
Elevated levels of which enzymes in the blood may indicate liver problems?
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Which precursor family do the 20 amino acids belong to that share a common precursor with glutamate?
Which precursor family do the 20 amino acids belong to that share a common precursor with glutamate?
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In transamidation, where does the N come from compared to transamination?
In transamidation, where does the N come from compared to transamination?
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Which molecule serves as the common precursor for the Glutamate family of amino acids?
Which molecule serves as the common precursor for the Glutamate family of amino acids?
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What is required to add nitrogen to a molecule directly from ammonia according to the text?
What is required to add nitrogen to a molecule directly from ammonia according to the text?
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What is the function of transamidation compared to transamination based on the text?
What is the function of transamidation compared to transamination based on the text?
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Which process adds nitrogen directly from ammonia to molecules?
Which process adds nitrogen directly from ammonia to molecules?
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Which enzyme is involved in the conversion of alpha ketoglutarate to glutamate, part of amino acid anabolism?
Which enzyme is involved in the conversion of alpha ketoglutarate to glutamate, part of amino acid anabolism?
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What is the main role of glucokinase in the context provided?
What is the main role of glucokinase in the context provided?
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Why can't other tissues convert excess glucose to glycogen?
Why can't other tissues convert excess glucose to glycogen?
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What is significant about adding a phosphate group (P) to glucose?
What is significant about adding a phosphate group (P) to glucose?
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Why does hexokinase have a lower Km value compared to glucokinase?
Why does hexokinase have a lower Km value compared to glucokinase?
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Why is hexokinase inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate while glucokinase is not?
Why is hexokinase inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate while glucokinase is not?
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What does a high Vmax value indicate for an enzyme like glucokinase?
What does a high Vmax value indicate for an enzyme like glucokinase?
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What happens in the HK pathway until 'what happens'?
What happens in the HK pathway until 'what happens'?
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What is the primary function of hexokinase and glucokinase in carbohydrate metabolism?
What is the primary function of hexokinase and glucokinase in carbohydrate metabolism?
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In reversible noncompetitive enzyme inhibition, does binding to E or ES appear to have a higher affinity?
In reversible noncompetitive enzyme inhibition, does binding to E or ES appear to have a higher affinity?
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For noncompetitive inhibition, is Vmax lower or higher in the presence of the inhibitor?
For noncompetitive inhibition, is Vmax lower or higher in the presence of the inhibitor?
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What happens in irreversible enzyme inhibition?
What happens in irreversible enzyme inhibition?
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How does Penicillin function as an inhibitor?
How does Penicillin function as an inhibitor?
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How does lead poisoning affect enzyme activity?
How does lead poisoning affect enzyme activity?
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What is the primary consequence of lead poisoning in terms of heme synthesis?
What is the primary consequence of lead poisoning in terms of heme synthesis?
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How does irreversible inhibition differ from reversible inhibition in terms of mechanism?
How does irreversible inhibition differ from reversible inhibition in terms of mechanism?
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In reversible enzyme inhibition, what is the key characteristic of competitive inhibition?
In reversible enzyme inhibition, what is the key characteristic of competitive inhibition?
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What is the main reason Vmax does not change in competitive inhibition?
What is the main reason Vmax does not change in competitive inhibition?
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In uncompetitive reversible enzyme inhibition, where does the inhibitor bind?
In uncompetitive reversible enzyme inhibition, where does the inhibitor bind?
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How does methotrexate exert its effect against cancer cells?
How does methotrexate exert its effect against cancer cells?
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What is the impact of uncompetitive inhibition on Vmax?
What is the impact of uncompetitive inhibition on Vmax?
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Why doesn't competitive inhibition affect Km?
Why doesn't competitive inhibition affect Km?
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What happens to product formation in the presence of uncompetitive inhibition?
What happens to product formation in the presence of uncompetitive inhibition?
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What is a characteristic feature of irreversible enzyme inhibition?
What is a characteristic feature of irreversible enzyme inhibition?
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What effect would an activator, which could be the substrate, have on the shape of the binding graph for multi-subunit allosteric enzymes?
What effect would an activator, which could be the substrate, have on the shape of the binding graph for multi-subunit allosteric enzymes?
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In the context of allosteric inhibition, where does ATP bind when it is acting as an inhibitor?
In the context of allosteric inhibition, where does ATP bind when it is acting as an inhibitor?
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In the example of phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK1), what is the effect of ATP on enzyme activity?
In the example of phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK1), what is the effect of ATP on enzyme activity?
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What happens to the Km values for different binding sites when comparing ATP as an inhibitor vs. a substrate in allosteric inhibition?
What happens to the Km values for different binding sites when comparing ATP as an inhibitor vs. a substrate in allosteric inhibition?
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What does the term 'allosterically inhibited by ATP' imply about the regulation of phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK1)?
What does the term 'allosterically inhibited by ATP' imply about the regulation of phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK1)?
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How does the binding of F-6-P to one subunit affect the binding of F-6-P to other subunits in phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK1)?
How does the binding of F-6-P to one subunit affect the binding of F-6-P to other subunits in phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK1)?
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Study Notes
Atomic Structure and Bonds
- Carbon atom has 6 protons in its nucleus.
- The first shell of an atom can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.
- Carbon is unique in forming 4 covalent bonds by sharing its 4 outer shell electrons.
- Oxygen can form a maximum of 2 covalent bonds.
- Hydrogen has 1 electron in its outer shell.
- Sulfur has an atomic number of 16 and can form 2 covalent bonds.
- The electronegativity difference between two atoms determines if a bond is polar; a difference greater than 0.5 leads to a polar covalent bond.
- Phosphorus can form 3 covalent bonds.
Types of Bonds
- Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms.
- In a non-polar covalent bond, electrons are shared equally.
- The main difference between polar and non-polar covalent bonds is the unequal sharing of electrons in polar bonds.
- Hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals forces, and ionic bonds are types of intermolecular connections.
- Electronegativity of an atom in a covalent bond is determined by its ability to attract electrons.
Water and Solubility
- Water's polarity enables it to dissolve many polar substances.
- Hydrophobic molecules repel water and do not mix with it, while hydrophilic molecules interact favorably with water.
- Molecules that repel water are referred to as hydrophobic.
- Dipole-dipole interactions occur due to polar covalent bonds between neighboring molecules.
Reactions and Enzymes
- Redox reactions involve electron transfer, indicated by the mnemonic 'LEO the lion says GER.'
- NAD+/NADH are key players in electron transport processes.
- Dehydrogenases are a type of oxidoreductase involved in oxidizing substrates in metabolic pathways like the Krebs cycle.
- FAD/FADH2 are also involved in enzyme reactions, acting as electron carriers.
- Hydrolysis reactions in biological systems are catalyzed by hydrolases, with nucleophiles like water participating in these reactions.
- Amylase, hydratases, and decarboxylases catalyze key reactions in metabolism, including carbohydrate breakdown.
Metabolic Processes
- Beta-oxidation breaks down fatty acids for energy, involving lyases that create double bonds.
- ATPases play a crucial role by hydrolyzing ATP to release energy.
- Mutases and epimerases are specific types of isomerases involved in rearranging molecules.
- Red blood cells rely on the bicarbonate buffer system regulated by carbonic anhydrase to maintain pH balance.
Bicarbonate Buffer System
- Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and carbonic acid (H2CO3) are integral to the bicarbonate buffer system.
- The effectiveness of the bicarbonate buffer system is enhanced in extracellular fluid due to higher buffering power.
- The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation calculates pH based on the concentration of acids and their conjugate bases, helping understand buffer capacities.
Anaerobic and Aerobic Metabolism
- Under anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces lactate from pyruvate instead of acetyl-CoA.
- Gluconeogenesis primarily occurs in the liver and is essential for glucose production.
- Ketogenesis is a metabolic pathway for generating ketone bodies during low carbohydrate availability.
- Lipogenesis is the synthesis of fatty acids, mainly occurring in the cytoplasm of liver cells.
Temperature and Properties of Water
- Water has unusual properties including high specific heat capacity and ability to form hydrogen bonds, which are responsible for its unique characteristics, including dissolving many substances.
- Water reaches its highest density at 4°C.
Miscellaneous
- The leaves from the suggestion of "X" in naming conventions for enzymes help categorize their function and reaction type (e.g., ligases, hydrolases).
- Understanding the specific roles of enzymes such as peptidases and hydratases is crucial for comprehension of metabolic processes.
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General Biochemistry 1-9 (including pre- and post-learning)
