Core Principles of Science

• Science involves a systematic and organized method for understanding the natural world.
• It relies on observation, experimentation, and evidence-based reasoning.
• Science encompasses various disciplines, each exploring specific aspects of the universe and its phenomena.

Core Principles of Science

• Empiricism indicates that experience and observation are primary sources of knowledge.
• Rationalism indicates that reason and logic are essential for interpreting observations and forming theories.
• Skepticism means scientific claims are subject to scrutiny and need empirical evidence.
• Objectivity describes the effort to minimize personal biases and subjective interpretations in science.
• Parsimony indicates that simpler explanations are preferred over complex ones when evidence is equal; this is also known as Occam's Razor.

Scientific Method

• Observation involves noticing a phenomenon or identifying a problem.
• Hypothesis involves forming a testable explanation or prediction.
• Prediction involves making specific predictions based on the hypothesis.
• Experimentation involves designing and conducting tests of the predictions.
• Analysis involves interpreting data collected during experiments.
• Conclusion involves judging the validity of the hypothesis based on evidence.

Branches of Science

• Natural Sciences examine the physical world.
  • Physics studies the fundamental laws governing matter, energy, space, and time.
  • Chemistry studies the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter.
  • Biology studies living organisms, their structure, function, growth, evolution, and distribution.
  • Earth Science studies the Earth’s structure, composition, processes, and history.
  • Astronomy studies celestial objects and phenomena.
• Social Sciences study human behavior and societies.
  • Sociology examines social behavior, institutions, and structures.
  • Psychology studies the human mind and behavior.
  • Economics studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
  • Political Science studies government, politics, and political behavior.
  • Anthropology studies human societies, cultures, and their development.
• Formal Sciences utilize formal systems to generate knowledge.
  • Mathematics studies numbers, quantities, shapes, and their relationships.
  • Logic studies reasoning and argumentation.
  • Computer Science studies computation and information processing.

Scientific Theories and Laws

• Scientific Theory describes a well-supported explanation of the natural world, integrating facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses.
  • Examples include the theory of evolution, the theory of general relativity, and the atomic theory.
• Scientific Law describes a statement or equation that reliably predicts events under specific conditions.
  • Examples include the law of gravity, the laws of thermodynamics, and Boyle's law.

Measurement and Units

• Scientific measurements use standardized units for accuracy, precision, and comparability.
• The International System of Units (SI) serves as the most common measurement system in science.
• Important SI base units include:
  • Meter (m) for length.
  • Kilogram (kg) for mass.
  • Second (s) for time.
  • Ampere (A) for electric current.
  • Kelvin (K) for temperature.
  • Mole (mol) for amount of substance.
  • Candela (cd) for luminous intensity.
• Derived units combine base units, such as
  • Newton (N) for force (kg⋅m/s²).
  • Joule (J) for energy (kg⋅m²/s²).
  • Watt (W) for power (kg⋅m²/s³).
  • Pascal (Pa) for pressure (kg/m⋅s²).

Scientific Instruments

• Scientific instruments are tools for observation, experimentation, and data collection.
• Examples include:
  • Microscopes observe small objects and structures.
  • Telescopes observe distant celestial objects.
  • Spectrometers analyze the composition of light and matter.
  • Oscilloscopes display and analyze electrical signals.
  • Particle accelerators accelerate particles to high speeds for research.
  • Chromatography equipment separates and analyzes chemical substances.
  • DNA sequencers determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA molecules.

Data Analysis and Statistics

• Data analysis applies statistical methods to summarize, interpret, and conclude from data.
• Descriptive statistics summarize and describe dataset features, like mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and range.
• Inferential statistics make generalizations about a population from a data sample, like hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and regression analysis.

Scientific Communication

• Scientific findings are shared through peer-reviewed publications, conferences, and presentations.
• Peer review assures the quality and validity of scientific research.
• Clear communication of methods, results, and conclusions remains essential.

Ethics in Science

• Integrity requires honesty and transparency in research practices.
• Objectivity requires minimizing bias and conflicts of interest.
• Openness requires sharing data, methods, and results.
• Respect for intellectual property requires proper attribution and citation.
• Responsible conduct of research involves adhering to ethical guidelines and regulations.
• Consideration for the environmental and social impact of scientific research is expected