Constantinople: Rise of a Capital

Yerebatan Sarnici (Basilica Cistern)

• Located in Istanbul, serving as a "cathedral of shadows" beneath the city
• Dates back to when Istanbul was known as Constantinople

Byzance's Strategic Importance

• Situated on the Bosphorus
• Allowed inhabitants to control passage between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea
• Formerly a modest Greek city known as Byzance

Constantin Ier's Vision

• In 324, Constantin sought a new capital for the Roman Empire, that was less crowded than Rome
• It was meant as an obvious symbol of his personal glory
• Byzance was renamed Kônstantinoúpolis ("city of Constantine")

Kônstantinoúpolis' Expansion

• The city's surface area quadrupled
• New ports were constructed for trade and warfare
• Numerous forums, aqueducts, churches, basilicas, and an imperial palace were erected

Théodose's Fortification

• In 412, Emperor Théodose ordered the construction of an imposing new wall
• It symbolized Roman military skill
• Proved impenetrable for over a millennium

Constantinople's Rise

• After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the former Kônstantinoúpolis became the undisputed capital of the Roman world
• Population exceeded one million

Constantinople - A Cosmopolitan Hub

• Churches, synagogues, and mosques arose, marking the city as a major commercial center
• Peoples from Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asian steppes converged
• The Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, faced invasions and civil wars, leading to its decline

The Fall of Constantinople

• By 1453, only remnants of the Byzantine Empire remained, including parts of southern Greece and Constantinople itself
• The city was a symbol of the empire's existence
• The empire could not vanish as long as the city stood

Mehmed II's Ambition

• Mehmed II, the young sultan of the Ottoman Empire, wanted to capture Constantinople, and transform it into his capital
• He aimed to grant the Ottomans global prominence
• He recognized the need to breach the walls of Théodose

Mehmed II's Early Reign

• Mehmed II's early reign began with challenges
• His father, Mourad II, abdicated in 1444 to dedicate his life to prayer
• Mehmed, only 12 years old, succeeded him
• The child-sultan had a bad temper, and clashed with Grand Vizier Djandarli Khalil Pacha, disrupting government operations
• A popular revolt broke out and Edirne, the Ottoman capital, was set on fire
• Mehmed, now 13, had to face a crusade launched by the Venetians

Mourad II's Return

• Djandarli Khalil Pacha summoned Mourad II back to power amidst the crisis
• After the war, Mourad wanted to retire again, but the janissaries revolted, rejecting Mehmed's authority
• Mourad had no choice but to remain in power until his death in 1451

Mehmed II's Strategy

• Upon his second ascension, Mehmed II decided to conquer Constantinople to maintain power
• In 1451, the remnants of the Byzantine Empire troubled the Ottomans
• Constantinople's location on the Bosphorus Strait hindered Ottoman passage between Europe and Asia

Mehmed II's Consolidation

• Mehmed argued that controlling the Bosphorus was vital for the empire's security
• He retained most of Mourad's advisors and provided gifts to the janissaries

Mehmed II's Preparations

• Mehmed could not afford failure
• He renewed peace with neighboring states;
• He gathered his father's well-trained armies
• Rumeli Hisari fortress was built to control the region
• A fleet was developed to prevent Constantinople from being resupplied
• Greek territories in the south were occupied
• Modern artillery, including a giant bombards, was developed

The Siege of Constantinople

• The siege of Constantinople began on April 2, 1453
• Mehmed was 21 years old
• Despite Ottoman assaults and artillery fire, the defenders held firm
• The Byzantines, supported by Genoese and Catalans, restored their defenses

Naval Challenges

• Mehmed's new fleet was ineffective
• Italian and Greek ships bypassed the blockade and resupplied the Byzantines.
• The Turkish ships could not approach city due its port being protected by a chain
• He transported ships over the Galata neighborhood to blockade the Bosphorus and the Golden Horn
• Constantinople's ports found themselves between two fires, and a boat bridge eased troop movement

Internal Conflicts

• Ministers argued whether to lift the siege
• Djandarli Khalil Pacha feared invasions by Hungarians, Venetians, the Pope, and Albanians
• A final assault was planned for May 28, 1453

The Final Assault

• Mehmed planned every battalion's movement
• On May 29, 1453, the Roman Empire of the Orient ceased to exist

Konstantiniyye's Rebirth

• With the capture of Constantinople, now Konstantiniyye, Mehmed gained authority and became the heir to both Mahomet and the Roman emperors
• The city was in ruins
• It had been impoverished since the 13th century
• The population was about 40,000
• Mehmed ended pillaging after two days and freed his slaves

Reconstruction Efforts

• Mehmed II ordered the city's reconstruction
• Constantinople should become new center of the world
• Walls were repaired, markets, aqueducts, and cisterns were restored, and entire streets were repopulated
• Construction of Topkapi Palace began around 1460
• Ministers were "voluntarily " asked to help fund mosques, hospitals, libraries, bathhouses, and markets

Mehmed II, "The Conqueror"

• Mehmed II was nicknamed "Fatih," meaning "the conqueror"
• He conducted wars on multiple fronts

Military Campaigns

• Before attacking the Byzantines, he annexed the Turkish sultanate of Karamanides
• In 1453, he secured his new capital by invading Genoese possessions in the Black Sea and Aegean Sea
• He subjugated the Greeks in the south
• The Ottomans and Hungarians clashed in the Balkans
• Venice engaged in costly wars against the Turks

Anatolian Conquests

• Mehmed II conquered Trébizonde and several Turkish emirates
• He also subdued the sultan of Aq Qolunyu Akkoyunlular

Setbacks

• Albania resisted Ottoman invasions and allied with the Pope, Venetians, and Hungarians
• The knights Hospitallers of Rhodes remained a nuisance for the Ottomans

Mehmed II's Cultural Policies

• Mehmed II integrated Byzantine elites into the Ottoman administration
• He sought recognition as master rather than solely as head of muslims

Religious Tolerance Integration

• Mehmed enlisted monk Gennadios as the new patriarch of Constantinople
• He entrusted Gennadios with protecting the rights of Orthodox Christians in his empire
• Despite Christian sympathies, tensions arose among Muslims

Religious Rumors

• Rumors arose that Mehmed II had converted to Christianity
• European intellectuals and monarchs attempted to convert the sultan

Mehmed II's Religious Approach

• Mehmed engaged with Christians and Jews to secure their allegiance and unify his empire
• Priests and rabbis sought assurances that their communities would persist without persecution

Artistic Pursuits

• Mehmed II displayed a passion for the arts
• The overall restructing of Constantinople was work of open-air art

Mehmed II's Cultural and Intellectual Pursuits

• Mehmed II defied conservative Muslim views by commissioning Venetian painters for portraits and amassing an art collection comparable to those in Italian Renaissance palaces.
• He embraced the Byzantine heritage, integrating it with Turkish culture and the Muslim religion to establish his universal empire.
• His extensive library contained works from Arab and Persian philosophers and poets, as well as ancient Latin and Greek texts.
• The library also featured detailed atlases and scientific manuals from Muslim and European scholars, reflecting his interest in innovative ideas.
• Mehmed II had a strong interest in new, especially military, technologies to maintain his strategic advantage over enemies.

Mehmed II as a Legislator and Ruler

• Mehmed II codified and clarified existing laws without creating new ones.
• He consolidated laws applicable to non-Muslim communities, presenting himself as their former rulers' successor and earning their trust.
• He reduced certain penalties and fines to appear as a generous and benevolent ruler to non-Muslims.
• In contrast, Mehmed II confronted the Muslim clergy (Ulema) who opposed his authoritarian rule.
• He seized assets from religious foundations which were usually independent and tax-exempt, angering devout believers and Islamic law experts.
• He used traditions and his reputation as a conqueror to suppress legal disputes.
• Mehmed II created the Kânnûnamê, a legislative code defining the rights and duties of his subjects, including local customs, tax systems, penal sanctions, and succession rules.
• To maintain power, the code allowed the Ottoman heir to execute his brothers; Mehmed II killed his youngest brother, invoking this custom.

Conclusion: Mehmed II's Legacy

• Historians debate whether the end of the Middle Ages was in 1492 (the great discoveries) or 1453 (the fall of Constantinople).
• Despite a challenging start, Mehmed II quickly became a capable leader.
• Although tyrannical, he was attentive to administration, arts, and science.
• He strengthened his empire militarily, held off Hungary, weakened Venice, and incorporated Turkish emirates of Anatolia.
• He left a modern army with unmatched artillery upon his death in 1481.
• Mehmed II centralized power, reinforcing his authority over ministers and families through violence, military glory, and bribes to the Janissaries.
• Future heirs would become hostages of these elite soldiers.
• Constantinople was repopulated and rehabilitated, with community leaders appointed to serve the Sultan.
• Mehmed's universalist approach to integrate subjects of all religions offended the Muslim population.
• Mehmed II left behind a vast and powerful empire, but the army was weary, the people divided, and the economy unstable due to currency devaluation.
• Despite a civil war between his sons, his legacy facilitated Selim I's conquest of Egypt and claim of the title of Caliph, and Suleiman the Magnificent's advance to Vienna.

Explore the rise of Constantinople, from its strategic location as Byzance to Constantine's vision of a new Roman capital. Discover the city's expansion, marked by new ports, forums and the construction of impressive structures. Learn about Théodose's impenetrable walls.