World History Midterm Exam (Ch.6-7)

The Byzantine Civilization

• The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, remained for a thousand years after the Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476.
• Byzantine civilization was a blend of ancient Greek heritage and Near Eastern cultures, influencing Russia and southeastern Europe.
• The expansion of Christ's kingdom continued in the East, experiencing spiritual contamination.
• Rival movements challenged Christ's kingdom, including Islam, which arose in Arabia and spread through military conquest, creating an empire from Spain to India.
• God allows artificiality to challenge Christ's kingdom and raises up rival movements.

The Rise of "New Rome"

• Emperor Constantine dedicated "New Rome" in 330, later known as Constantinople, located on the Bosporus strait.
• Constantinople was a vital trade link between East and West.
• The Turkish government changed Constantinople's name to Istanbul in 1930.
• It became a major political and religious hub, serving as the Eastern Roman Empire's capital after Theodosius divided the empire.
• Barbarian tribes caused the Western Roman Empire to crumble, but the Eastern Empire remained strong due to its wealth.
• The Byzantine Empire originated from the ancient Greek city Byzantium, with inhabitants considering themselves Romans and maintaining Roman traditions but further influenced by Hellenistic culture and more Greek than Roman, more Asiatic than European.
• Constantinople, the "queen of the Mediterranean," became the foremost city of the empire.

The Reign of Justinian

• Emperor Justinian (527-565) and his wife Theodora marked the first golden age of Byzantine history.
• In 532, the Nika Revolt threatened Justinian's power, but Theodora's encouragement led him to crush the uprising, solidifying his rule.
• Justinian's chief objective was restoring the greatness of the Roman Empire.
• To accomplish this goal, he sought to recover Roman territory in the West that had fallen into the hands of barbarian tribes.
• Justinian's forces conquered North Africa, Italy, and parts of Spain, expanding the Byzantine Empire, but still not all lands once held by Rome.
• One enduring achievement was the preservation of Roman law, resulting in the Justinian Code, systematizing Roman legal principles.
• Due to numerous regulations, the Romans forgot the foundational concepts of truth and justice.
• Justinian appointed a commission of ten scholars to compile, reorganize, and condense Roman law.
• This code preserved the heritage of the Roman legal system and provided a foundation for most modern European nations to build their political and legal systems.
• Justinian initiated extensive construction projects, including churches like the Hagia Sophia, blending law, religion, and architecture.
• Missionaries were sent from the Eastern Orthodox Church to lands such as Nubia, south of Egypt.
• Nubians later hindered the spread of Islam.
• Justinian's efforts left the empire with an over-extended military and drained finances, as well as a neglected Eastern and Northern border defenses.

Eastern and Western Churches Separate

• Constantine founded "New Rome" as a new political and religious center, making Christianity the favored religion.
• Constantinople became one of the five patriarchal cities, second to Rome.
• The bishop of Rome became the most important religious leader in the West.
• The patriarch of Constantinople held that position in the East.
• The Western church embraced tradition alongside Scripture, baptismal regeneration, sacred works for salvation, and increased authority for church leaders.
• The Eastern church was influenced by Greek and Oriental ideas.
• These developments led to the emergence of the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the East.
• The church in the East became the state church, closely tied to the empire's political structure.
• The Byzantine emperor was the head of state and protector of the church.
• Differences arose over Easter celebrations, priestly marriage, and the use of icons.
• The conflict between the churches culminated in 1054 with mutual excommunications, marking the formal split.
• The Pope sent a delegation to Constantinople and stated that he was assuming authority over the churches in southern Italy.
• The Patriarch refused to accept the Pope's actions, so the Pope's representatives excommunicated him, and the Patriarch did the same in retaliation.

The Eastern Orthodox Church

• Churches refusing Rome's control became the Eastern Orthodox Church.
• "Orthodox" means "straight opinion" in Greek.
• Early leaders defended the Trinity and Christ's divinity.
• The church later adopted sacraments and baptismal regeneration.
• It emphasizes conformity, ritual, and reverence for icons over a personal relationship with Christ.
• The Eastern Orthodox Church comprises various national churches, each led by its own patriarch and equal in position to every other patriarch.

The Empire Under Siege

• The Byzantine Empire faced sieges from the Lombards, Slavs, Bulgars, and Sassanids.
• In the seventh century, Arab Muslims posed a significant threat, but Constantinople withstood their attacks because of its location, fortifications, and "Greek fire".
• Greek Fire, developed in the seventh century, was a chemical weapon that ignited spontaneously, even in water, and was effective against wooden ships.
• It contained an mixture of chemicals possibly including quicklime, sulfur, naphtha, and potassium nitrate, which soldiers squirted from tubes or launched in jars from catapults at the enemy.
• The empire lost Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa to the Muslims, greatly reducing its territory.
• Between 850 and 1050, the empire regained strength, pushing back Muslims and dominating the Mediterranean under Basil II, the "Bulgar Slayer".
• Commercial rivals, especially Venice, challenged Byzantine trade supremacy.
• The Seljuk Turks gained control of Asia Minor after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071.
• The Crusades were initiated in response to the Turks.
• Constantinople was captured and looted in 1204 by Western Crusaders, enlisted to destroy Venice's commercial rival.
• The empire declined for two centuries before falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Byzantine Civilization Contributions

• The empire shielded the West from Islam for hundreds of years.
• This protection had given the West time to recover from the long period of chaos that followed the collapse of Rome.
• It preserved and transmitted the classical heritage of Greece and Rome.
• Despite diminished size, its influence expanded, attracting less civilized peoples.
• Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius created a written language for the Slavic peoples.
• Byzantine art and architecture, aimed to glorify God, included wall paintings, carved ivory, illuminated manuscripts, and mosaics.
• The Hagia Sophia is a marvel of Byzantine architecture and a model of architectural design that was copied in other cities and lands.
• Icons were used in worship to direct one's mind beyond the icon to the heavenly reality it represents.
• Artistic techniques and colors with specific meanings were used.
• Artists developed techniques to make the painted figures appear otherworldly, remaining unchanged for many centuries.
• There are no shadows because the shadows imply something material and earthly.
• Historical scenes that occurred inside a building are often shown outside with the building in the background, giving it universal meaning.
• The figures in icons are portrayed unrealistically with very thin noses, small mouths, and large eyes.
• This illustrates the fact that the figures supposedly conquered their five senses and lived in holiness according to their spiritual nature.
• Christ is usually portrayed wearing garments of red, blue, and gold.
• Red symbolized love, and the blue and gold represented truth and heaven.
• In pictures of the transfiguration, Christ is usually shown wearing white, a symbol of light and holiness.

Early Russia Beginnings

• Russia covers much of Europe and Asia.
• Slavs, the largest group, played a key role in early Russian state formation.
• Three groups of Slavs emerged: West, Yugo, and East Slavs, the ancestors of the Russians.
• The West Slavs settled in the Danube region, and the Yugo-Slavs moved down into the Balkan area.
• The East Slavs settled between the Baltic and Black Seas.
• Varangians, Swedish Norsemen, plundered Slavic villages, then settled and protected them.
• In 862, Rurik gained control of Novgorod, marking the beginning of Russian history, and establishing the first ruling dynasty of Russia.

Byzantine Cultural Influences

• Kiev became a center of the early Russian state, facilitating trade with the Byzantine Empire.
• The area was known as Russia, named after the Norsemen, Rus.
• Kievan ruler Vladimir I adopted Eastern Orthodoxy in 988, establishing Orthodox Christianity as the official state religion.
• By adopting Eastern Orthodoxy rather than Roman Catholicism, Russia cut itself off from the mainstream of Western thought and instead came under the influences of the eastern church and Byzantine culture.
• The Slavic alphabet, created by Cyril and Methodius, enabled translation of Greek works and fostered Russian literature.
• Russian artists created icons and cathedrals patterned after Byzantine models, with unique "onion-shaped" domes.

Vladimir and the Orthodox Church

• Vladimir chose Eastern Orthodoxy over Islam, Judaism, and Roman Catholicism.
• Envoys described a service at the Hagia Sophia, influencing Vladimir's decision.
• He rejected Islam because the Qur'an forbade the drinking of alcoholic beverages.
• He rejected Judaism because the Jewish people had been defeated and scattered across the world.
• Finally, the king rejected Roman Catholicism because the Catholic churches were dark and damp, and the services were dull.

Height of Kievan Russia

• Under Yaroslav "the Wise" (1036-1054), Kiev reached its peak and was known as the "Mother of Russian cities".
• Yaroslav expanded territory, formed marriage alliances, and sponsored a Russian code of laws, combining Slavic tribal law and Byzantine law.
• Kiev became a rival of Constantinople, attracting Byzantine artists, teachers, and priests.
• After Yaroslav's death, Kiev declined due to infighting.
• The Tartars destroyed Kiev in 1240, and Moscow rose as a new center.

The Land of Arabia

• Arabia is a large peninsula south of the Fertile Crescent between Asia and Africa.
• It is bounded by the Persian Gulf in the East and the Red Sea in the West, and in land area, it is about one-third the size of the United States.
• Much of Arabia is barren desert.
• Arabs trace their lineage to Abraham through Ishmael.
• Absence of an organized government led to to tribal warfare.
• Bedouins were desert nomads searching for pastureland and water.
• Some Arabs lived settled lives in cities along trade routes.

The Founding of Islam

• In 570-632, Muhammad claimed to be the last prophet of Allah.
• Muhammad's teachings formed Islam, meaning "submission".
• Muslims are "submitters to Allah".
• Muhammad was born in Mecca and married Khadijah.
• He meditated and encountered various religions, borrowing from them.

The Messenger of Allah

• While meditating, Muhammad received a vision from the angel Gabriel.
• Muhammad began preaching about Allah and that he was Allah's prophet.
• Initial followers included family and friends.
• People of Mecca viewed his teachings as a threat to their religious beliefs and the city's commercial interests.
• The Kaaba shrine housed hundreds of idols and the Black Stone and was a sacred shrine that pilgrims journeyed to.

The Flight to Medina

• In 622, Muhammad and his followers fled to Medina, known, as the Hegira.
• Celebrated as year 1 in the Muslim calendar.
• Muhammad became the leader in Medina.
• He advanced his cause by military conquest.
• In 630, Muhammad reentered Mecca in triumph.
• The Kaaba was turned into the center of Islamic worship, making Mecca the "holy city".

The Teachings of Islam

• The Qur'an is the sacred book of the Muslims.
• Muslims believe that the archangel Gabriel revealed the words of Allah to Muhammad.
• The Qur'an consists of 114 chapters.
• Muslims believe in one god, Allah.
• Muhammad is revered as the last and greatest of Allah's prophets.
• The Qur'an serves as a guide for believers.
• The teachings include moral conduct, prayer & condemnation of idolatry, murder, gambling & adultery.
• Muslim men are allowed to have up to four wives and to arrange "temporary" marriages.
• The Qur'an references stories and characters from the Old and New Testaments.
• Muslims honor Noah, Abraham, David, and Jesus as prophets of Allah.
• The god of the Qur'an is not the God of the Bible.
• Muhammad rejected the doctrine of the Trinity and Christ being the Son of God.

The Five Pillars

• Shahadah: Reciting "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet."
• Salat: Reciting prayers up to five times a day while facing Mecca.
• Zakat: Giving alms to the poor.
• Sawm: Fasting from sunrise to sunset during Ramadan.
• Hajj: Making a pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Muslims believe that Muhammad is the spokesman for divine truth.
• The bible claims that Jesus Christ the Word of God, the ultimate revealer of the Father.
• Islam has contradictions in beliefs.
• Islam denies that Jesus came to save people from sin and that he never died on the cross.
• Allah cannot be just unless he punishes all men for sin.
• He has no basis to forgive if Jesus never died to pay the penalty for sin.

Islam and Murder

• The Quran forbids murder of Muslims.
• Killing non-Muslims in battle was encouraged by Muhammad.
• Journals of Muslim conquerors recorded the beheading of large numbers of prisoners following conquest.
• Muslim forces murdered hundreds of thousands of Hindus even after they submitted to Muslim rule.

Sunni vs Shia Islam

• Sunni Muslims believed that any worthy Muslim could be appointed to lead Islam since Muhammad did not appoint a successor.
• The caliph was a political leader who served as judge, administrator, and general, but he was not the Muslim's spiritual leader.
• Shia Muslims believed that Muhammad intended Ali to be his successor with authority over political and spiritual matters.
• Shia Muslims called their leader imam rather than caliph.
• Sunnis use the term imam to refer only to the leader of worship in a mosque.
• The caliphate was dissolved in 1924 by Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal.
• Sunni Muslims are looking forward to the renewal of the caliphate to unite Muslims.

The Spread of Islam

• By 632, Muhammad had united much of Arabia.
• Caliphs, successors, directed Islam with spiritual, political, and military authority.
• Abu Bakr initiated military conquest, leading to a vast empire.
• Factors for rapid expansion included the desire to escape poverty, weak Byzantine and Persian Empires, and Islamic unity for Arab tribes.
• Arabs viewed each conquest as a jihad and defended the honor of Islam with their swords.
• The promise that a Muslim's death in battle assured him entrance to paradise intensified their religious zeal.

Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)

• In 661, a Muslim general proclaimed himself caliph.
• The political capital of the empire was moved from Medina to Damascus.
• A hereditary dynasty was created, ending the practice of selecting the caliph from among the close friends and relatives of Muhammad.
• Muslim forces pushed eastward into India, laid siege to Constantinople, and advanced across North Africa.
• In 711, they invaded Spain and pressed on into southern France.
• In 732, they were stopped by the Franks at the Battle of Tours.

Abbasid Caliphate (750-ca. 1000)

• Abbas overthrew the Umayyad caliph in 750 and founded the Abbasid caliphate.
• Arab supremacy within the Muslim empire gradually declined.

The Turks and the Crusades

• The first significant defeat of Muslim forces was inflicted by the Nubians.
• The Nubians repulsed the Muslim invasion in 710 and remained free of Muslim control until 1272.
• During the Abbasid dynasty, the political unity of the Muslim world began to crumble.
• The Seljuk Turks reunited much of the former Arab empire but also took control of Asia Minor.
• Muslim forces destroyed churches and monasteries and attacked Christian pilgrims in Asia Minor.
• The Crusades did little to remove the Muslims from Palestine, but they did succeed in weakening the power of the Seljuks.
• Turkish forces built a was Empire
• The Ottoman navy controlled the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.

Muslim Culture Contributions

• The Arabs built the Muslim empire through conquest.
• Trade routes with China, India, and East Africa expanded.
• Muslim leaders moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad.
• Islam demonstrated a more Persian influence.
• Abbasid caliphate marks the peak of the Muslim empire.
• Baghdad became one of the world's leading commercial centers.
• Islamic culture flourished.
• Manuscripts from other lands were translated into Arabic.
• Great libraries were built to house these manuscripts and their Arabic translations.
• Crusaders found silk, muslin, linen, and damask in Muslim lands.
• Persian or Oriental rugs, finely tooled leather, delicate filigree jewelry, engraved silver and gold, and exquisite knives and swords were admired.
• Ships carried treasures and dates, oranges, lemons, apricots, peaches, and melons back to Europe.

Medicine

• In medicine, the Muslims profited from the Greek writings of Galen and Hippocrates.
• Muslim doctors put into practical use what they learned from the classics and developed new medical procedures.
• Physicians were al-Razi and Ibn Sina.
• Al-Razi is best remembered for his work with smallpox, and Ibn Sina for his work with tuberculosis.
• Muslim doctors developed surgical skills.
• They removed cancer from the body and cataracts from the eye.
• Government inspectors supervised merchants to ensure the purity of the medicines.
• Government inspectors supervised merchants to ensure the purity of the medicines.

Literature

• Muslims produced rich and colorful imagery in both their poetry and their prose.
• Most renowned Muslim poet was Omar Khayyam.
• Poem with verses of four lines remain popular in the West.
• Better known to both young and old is The Thousand and One Nights (popularly known as The Arabian Nights).

Mathematics

• The Muslims borrowed much of their basic mathematical knowledge from India.
• The so-called Arabic numerals are of Hindu origin.
• Studied and improved algebra, as well as the geometry and trigonometry of the Greeks.

Art and Architecture

• Religion plays an important part in Muslim art.
• Common patterns found in Muslim art are abstract designs of stems and leaves and geometric figures.
• Muslim artists also excelled in calligraphy, the art of beautiful writing.
• Adorned the walls of buildings with verses from the Qur'an written in beautiful Arabic script.
• One of the most honored forms of Islamic art was manuscript illumination.
• Muslim art reached its highest achievement.
• Mosques are the best examples of Muslim architecture.
• Typical features of a mosque are its courtyard, minaret, and dome.
• In the courtyard is a pool for ceremonial washing before prayer.
• From this tower the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer five times a day.

India

• India is a land of great diversity.
• Ancient India was similar to other early river-valley civilizations.
• Early history China remained relatively influence China was isolated from other centers of civilization for many centuries.
• Indian society, a unique culture developed.

Early Civilization

• India derives its name from the Indus River.
• Knowledge of this civilization has come from excavations of two of its leading cities: Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
• The early inhabitants of India carried on trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia.
• Archaeological evidence indicates that the Indus civilization ended suddenly.
• A warlike people called the Aryans migrated into the Indus Valley.
• Aryans were herdsmen.
• Established a new language in India - Sanskrit.
• Records of the Aryans traditions and religious beliefs are preserved in the Vedas.

Key Features of Indian Society

• India has one of the oldest cultures in the modern world.
• The basic characteristics of Indian society have changed little from ancient to modern days.
• The family has always been one of the most important social units in India.
• Rural villages
• Castes

Religion and the Indian Way of Life

• Religion has played a dominant role in shaping Indian culture.
• Developed from India's early culture and traditions Preserved the traditional elements of India's past.
• Served as a unifying influence in India's diverse society.
• Hindus believe all religions to be equally true and equally false.
• Basic tenets of Hinduism are found in the religious literature of ancient India philosophical essays elaborating on the teaching of the Vedas and the Upanishads.
• Hindus believe that a great god called Brahman permeates everything in the universe.
• Since Brahman is not a personal being, he is often referred to as the great soul or world soul.
• Ultimate goal of every person is to reunite his soul with the world soul through reincarnation.
• Wheel of life

Buddhism

• India was also the birthplace of Buddhism.
• The "Enlightened One."
• Siddhartha Gautama become troubled over the misery, poverty, and death that he saw in the world.
• Gautama was convinced that he should devote all his efforts to find the way of deliverance from suffering.
• He gave up his princely heritage, left his wife and child, and set out to find peace and true happiness.
• Gautama was pondering the questions of life when he realized the truth and attained enlightenment.
• Man craves pleasure, possessions, and power.
• If a man follows the Eightfold Path, he will destroy selfish desires and end all suffering.
• Final state of all people is either in eternal union with or eternal separation from God, and the only way to have union with God is through Jesus Christ.

Lack of Political Unity

• Successive waves of foreign invaders streamed into the Indian subcontinent.

Mauryan Empire

• In 326 BC Alexander the Great threatened India.
• The Mauryan Empire.
• One of his most far-reaching acts was the sending of Buddhist missionaries abroad.
• Buddhist teachings as dangerous to the caste system.

Gupta Empire

• Perhaps greatest era of prosperity and achievement.
• The rulers of the Gupta dynasty reunited northern India under a strong and effective government.
• Trade flourished and the people prospered materially.
• The Gupta Age was also one of the finest periods of Indian art, architecture, literature, and science.
• Arabic numerals originally came from India.
• Medical attention, the people of the Gupta Empire went to free hospitals where Indian physicians performed many surgical procedures.
• Divided into small warring kingdoms.
• A conflict arose between the Muslim and Hindu elements within Indian society.
• The hostilities between Hindus and Muslims in Indian society have continued to the present.

Spread of the Gospel to India

• The apostle Thomas brought the gospel to India.
• Common in the first century.
• Christians did bring the gospel to India.
• Fourth century, Christians in Persia had made contact with the Christians in India.

The Land

• At the heart of eastern Asia is the land of China.
• Called their land the Middle Kingdom.
• China's population is nearly five times greater.
• China is one of the world's oldest civilizations.
• Two major river systems: The Huang He (or Yellow) and the Yangtze.
• Chinese developed and maintained a unique and stable culture that remained virtually unchanged from ancient to modern times.

- Societal Features

Strong Family Ties

• the family was and still is the center of life in Chinese society.
• A major responsibility of every Chinese person was to bring honor to his family.
• Every Chinese house contained an ancestral altar before which the Chinese burned incense to the spirits of their dead.

Language and Learning

• Tonal quality
• Chinese writing is not based on a simple alphabet as our English system is.
• It consists of some sixty-five thousand characters that represent complete ideas, objects, and sounds.
• Scholar's world
• Career in government service
• Chinese developed civil service examinations to choose the best qualified.
• Obtaining the highest test scores received the positions.

Chinese Thought and Life

• Two native philosophies greatly influenced Chinese life: Confucianism and Taoism.
• Systems of thought became the heart of China's religious beliefs and practices.

Confucianism

• Is the most honored teacher in Chinese history.
• Through proper conduct man could solve the problems of society and live in complete happiness.
• From the ancients he derived the fundamental principle for all human relationships.
• Neglect of the most important relationship of all-man and God.
• The Sayings of Confucius

Taoism

• Believed to be the founder of Taoism.
• Pervading force in nature.
• Harmony by ceasing to strive after power, wealth, and learning.
• Should adopt a simple, inactive lifestyle.
• Promotes living an active life
• Taoism favors a more passive lifestyle

Dynastic History of China

• The Chinese have a passion for history.
• The history of China's ruling dynasties (or families).

Shang Dynasty

• One of the earliest known Chinese dynasties.
• The rulers of this dynasty united much of northern China. Chinese writing inscribed on pieces of animal bones and tortoise shells will of their ancestors.

Zhou Dynasty

• The people who lived along the Shang's western border overthrew the Shang rulers.
• Family life, ancestor worship, the writing system, and Confucian and Taoist thought, became firmly established during this time.
• Government was decentralized.
• The local territories

Qin Dynasty

• The name Qin Shi Huang
• Qin Shi Huang.
• The first to unite the provinces of China under one strong centralized government.
• Great wall

Han Dynasty

• The Han dynasty to rule China
• Called themselves the "sons of Han."
• Drove back the Huns
• Competitive public examinations determined appointments to government posts.
• Chinese Peace.
• Opened with the West

Tang Dynasty

• Rulers came to power and restored unity and prosperity to China in 618.
• The Tang dynasty became a golden age in Chinese history.
• The Chinese enjoyed a stable government, an expanding empire, increased trade, contact with other civilizations, advances in learning, and magnificent works of art and literature.
• The Tang era was one of the finest periods of Chinese poetry.
• The most popular and prolific poet was Li Po, who wrote thousands of poems expressing emotional and sentimental themes.
• The glory of the Tang lasted about three centuries.
• As self-seeking rulers began squandering much of the country's wealth, the Tang dynasty lost both prosperity and power.
• The weakened dynasty collapsed shortly after 900.

Song Dynasty

• The Song restored order fifty years later.
• The Song dynasty was politically weak
• China was divided into the Northern Song (960-1127) and the Southern Song (1127-1279).
• Despite these problems, the Song dynasty carried on active trade, and the Chinese culture flourished. During this period the Chinese also excelled in painting, printing, and porcelain.
• There is distrust of outsiders in China.