Consequentialism: Moral Theory

• The study notes cover moral theory and applied ethics.

Consequentialism

• Core idea: An action's morality depends solely on its outcomes or consequences.
• Major Theorist Jeremy Bentham: Established act utilitarianism.
• Actions are right if they maximize happiness for the greatest number, based on the principle of utility.
• Bentham advocated a quantitative approach using hedonic calculus.
• Major Theorist John Stuart Mill: Promoted rule utilitarianism.
• Mill introduced qualitative dimensions to pleasures, differentiating between higher and lower pleasures.
• Utility refers to well-being or happiness.
• Hedonism is the belief that pleasure is the only intrinsic good.
• Impartiality suggests each person’s happiness counts equally.
• Maximization aims to produce the greatest net good.
• Objections include potentially justifying immoral acts if they increase overall happiness.
• Consequentialism can be too demanding, requiring constant optimization.
• Predicting consequences accurately is challenging.

Deontology

• Core Idea: Morality is based on duty, rules, and intentions, not consequences.
• Major Theorist: Immanuel Kant
• Good Will is good without qualification.
• Actions are morally worthy when done from duty, not personal desire.
• Categorical Imperative: Act only according to maxims that can become universal laws.
• Humanity should always be treated as an end, never merely as a means.
• Deontology respects human dignity and rights.
• It provides clear moral rules.
• Criticisms: Deontology can be rigid and inflexible.
• Resolving conflicts between duties can be difficult.
• Consequences are neglected.

Virtue Ethics

• Core Idea: Focuses on moral character development rather than rules or consequences.
• Major Theorist: Aristotle
• Eudaimonia signifies human flourishing or the highest human good.
• Virtue is the Golden Mean between two vices: deficiency and excess.
• Virtue is cultivated through habit and practice via moral education.
• Examples of Virtues: Courage, temperance, justice, wisdom.
• Virtue ethics emphasizes personal development.
• It is context-sensitive and holistic.
• It lacks clear decision-making guidance.
• Defining virtues can be culturally relative.

Religious Ethics

• Plato's Euthyphro poses the Euthyphro Dilemma: Is something moral because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?
• The dilemma undermines Divine Command Theory.
• Steven Cahn ("God and Morality") argues Divine Command Theory leads to arbitrary morality.
• Cahn suggests morality must be based on reason, not religious authority.

Moral Egoism

• Plato's "The Ring of Gyges" illustrates that people are only moral when watched or fearing consequences.
• James Rachels distinguishes between psychological egoism (descriptive) and ethical egoism (normative).
• Rachels argues ethical egoism is arbitrary, lacks impartiality, and fails to resolve moral conflict.

Justice Theory

• John Rawls' "A Theory of Justice" introduces the Original Position.
• The Original Position is a hypothetical scenario where individuals choose justice principles behind a veil of ignorance.
• Two Principles:
  • Equal Liberty: Equal basic rights and freedoms for all.
  • Difference Principle: Social and economic inequalities are just only if they benefit the least advantaged.
• Emphasizes fairness, equality, and distributive justice.

Ethics of War

• Fullinwider ("War and Innocence") examines the moral status of combatants vs. non-combatants.
• Fullinwider discusses the principle of discrimination and proportionality.
• Aquinas' Just War Theory says war must be waged by legitimate authority, for a just cause, and with right intention.
• Nagel ("War and Massacre") supports absolutist moral constraints even in war.
• Utilitarianism is insufficient.
• Kutz ("Democratic Values and the Limits of War") stresses democratic deliberation and public accountability in warfare decisions.

Just Distribution & Famine

• Peter Singer ("Famine, Affluence, and Morality") argues we are morally obligated to help those in need if we can do so without sacrificing something equally important.
• Singer advocates giving significantly more to charity.
• Andrew Kuper ("More than Charity") critiques Singer's focus on individuals.
• Kuper advocates for structural change and institutional justice.
• John Arthur ("World Hunger and Moral Obligation") defends the role of rights and entitlements.
• Arthur argues Singer's model ignores personal liberty and desert.

Ethics of Homosexuality

• Michael Levin argues homosexuality is unnatural and harmful to happiness based on questionable biological and psychological claims.
• Timothy Murphy counters Levin by arguing for equality, autonomy, and the importance of legal protections.
• Murphy points to flawed assumptions about naturalness and happiness.

Non-Human Animal Ethics

• Peter Singer ("Equality for Animals") uses utilitarian reasoning to argue for equal consideration of interests and critiques speciesism.
• Carl Cohen argues animals lack moral autonomy and thus don't have rights.
• Tom Regan ("Empty Cages") advocates for animal rights based on inherent value as subjects-of-a-life.
• R.G. Frey argues not all lives are of equal value.
• Frey defends animal use for medical purposes in some cases.

Climate Ethics

• Bill Devall ("The Deep Ecology Movement") advocates for biocentric equality and the intrinsic value of nature.
• Devall challenges anthropocentrism and promotes ecological harmony.
• Elliot Sober ("Philosophical Problems for Environmentalism") critiques grounding environmentalism solely on individualistic moral theories.
• Sober examines tensions between animal rights and environmental ethics.

Free Speech & Pornography

• J.S. Mill ("On Liberty, Chapter 2") defends free speech, even for false opinions, as contributing to discovering truth.
• Censorship deprives society of growth and understanding.
• Ronald Dworkin ("Is There a Right to Pornography?") defends free speech rights, including pornography, under liberal principles.
• Government should not restrict speech to enforce moral preferences.

Euthanasia

• James Rachels ("Active and Passive Euthanasia") finds no moral distinction between killing and letting die.
• Passive euthanasia can be more painful and less humane.
• Daniel Callahan ("When Self-Determination Runs Amok") criticizes euthanasia as undermining the physician's role and societal values.
• Callahan argues against medicalizing death.

Abortion

• J.T. Noonan argues life begins at conception and abortion is morally wrong except to save the mother’s life.
• J.J. Thomson ("A Defense of Abortion") uses thought experiments (e.g., violinist) to argue for bodily autonomy even if fetus has right to life.
• M.A. Warren defines personhood via traits (consciousness, reasoning, etc.).
• Warren argues a fetus lacks these traits and therefore has no moral right to life.
• Don Marquis argues abortion is immoral because it deprives a fetus of a "future like ours."
• Marquis avoids debates over personhood.