Computer Organization INT203

Computer System Components

• A complete computer system consists of hardware, operating system, application programs, and end users.
• Hardware includes the physical components of a computer.
• The operating system allows interaction between software, applications, and hardware.
• Application programs are specialized software like Microsoft Word, Excel, and web browsers.
• End users are either human users or other computers.

Definition of a Computer

• A computer is defined as a machine that computes, evolving from devices like the abacus.
• It stores data in various forms and interacts with external devices such as monitors and printers.
• Key functions include executing programs and data processing.

Basic Functions of a Computer

• Data Processing: Involves various forms of data and broad processing requirements.
• Data Storage: Includes both short-term and long-term storage solutions.
• Data Movement: Involves input-output (I/O) operations and data communications over distances.
• Control: The control unit manages resources and executes instructions.

Major Structural Components

• CPU (Central Processing Unit): Controls operations and processes data.
• Main Memory: Stores data temporarily.
• I/O Components: Facilitate data transfer between the computer and external devices.
• System Interconnection: Communicates between CPU, main memory, and I/O components.

CPU Structure

• Control Unit: Manages CPU operations.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Conducts data processing.
• Registers: Provide internal storage within the CPU.
• CPU Interconnection: Allows communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers.

Multicore Computer Structure

• CPU: Fetches and executes instructions, consisting of ALU, control unit, and registers.
• Core: An individual processing unit, comparable to a single CPU.
• Processor: Physical silicon component with multiple cores; termed multicore if more than one core is present.

Cache Memory

• Memory layers between the processor and main memory to speed up access.
• Cache is smaller and faster than main memory and holds frequently used data.
• Utilizes multiple cache levels (L1, L2, L3) for performance improvement.

Motherboard Components

• Contains CPU, main memory chips, and I/O chips.
• Hosts processor chip that includes multiple cores and cache components.

History of Computers

• First Generation (1946-1957): Featured vacuum tubes; key inventions include the IAS computer based on the stored program concept by John von Neumann.
• Second Generation (1957-1964): Transitioned to transistors, providing smaller size, lower cost, and less heat compared to vacuum tubes; emergence of high-level programming languages.

Evolution of Generations

• Speed and Technology through Generations:
  • 1st: Vacuum tubes (40,000 ops/sec).
  • 2nd: Transistors (200,000 ops/sec).
  • 3rd: Small scale integration (1,000,000 ops/sec).
  • 4th: Large scale integration (10,000,000 ops/sec).
  • 5th: Very large scale integration (100,000,000 ops/sec).
  • 6th: Ultra large scale integration (>1,000,000,000 ops/sec).

Significant Advancements

• Introduction of complex arithmetic and logical units.
• Development of system software for program loading, data movement, and common computations.
• Peripheral device configurations such as the IBM 7094, demonstrating independent operation through multiplexors.### Integrated Circuits and Third Generation Computers
• 1958 marks the invention of the integrated circuit, revolutionizing computer design.
• Discrete components included single transistors that were expensive and separately manufactured.
• Key third-generation computers: IBM System/360 and PDP-8 (Programmed Data Processor).

Fundamental Computer Elements

• Computers consist of gates, memory cells, and interconnections.
• Memory cells store data while gates perform data processing and logical functions.
• Data movement occurs through pathways connecting components, facilitating communication between memory and gates.

Growth of Transistor Count

• Dramatic increase in the number of transistors on integrated circuits over time, exemplified by 39.5 billion transistors on AMD Epyc Rome in 2019.
• Moore's Law observed by Gordon Moore in 1965 predicts the doubling of transistors on a chip approximately every 18 months.

IBM System/360

• Announced in 1964, it was incompatible with previous IBM machines but established IBM as a leading vendor in computing.
• The architecture remains foundational for IBM’s mainframe computers, emphasizing compatibility across models.

Microprocessor Development

• Intel's 4004 (1971) was the first chip to integrate all CPU components onto a single chip, marking the birth of microprocessors.
• Subsequent notable microprocessors include the 8008 (1972), the first 8-bit microprocessor, and the 8080 (1974), the first general-purpose microprocessor with advanced capabilities.

Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

• 1970s: Key models included 4004, 8008, and 8080, each progressing in clock speed, bus width, and transistor count.
• 1980s: Introduction of the 80286, 386, and 486 processors, showcasing increased transistor density and processing power.
• 1990s: Pentium series introduced with significant advancements in clock speed, memory capacity, and features.

x86 and ARM Architectures

• Intel x86 architecture exemplifies complex instruction set computers (CISCs), with decades of design evolution.
• ARM architecture, based on reduced instruction set computer (RISC) principles, excels in embedded systems and is widely recognized for efficiency and low power consumption.

Embedded Systems

• Billions of embedded systems are produced annually, integrating computing within larger devices.
• Real-time constraints enforce timing stipulations for functional operations in many embedded devices.

Embedded Operating Systems

• Two approaches for developing embedded operating systems: adapting existing OS or creating a bespoke OS for specific tasks.
• Application processors are versatile and capable of running multiple applications, while dedicated processors are optimized for specific tasks.

Designing for Performance

• Dramatic reductions in cost are coupled with increases in performance and capacity of computing systems.
• Modern laptops often possess computing power rivaling that of earlier mainframe systems.
• Common high-performance applications include image processing, 3D rendering, and simulation modeling.
• Growing reliance on powerful servers facilitates transaction processing and supports extensive client/server networks, alongside cloud service providers using high-performance servers for demanding applications.