Computer Organization INT203

Computer System Components

• A complete computer system consists of hardware, operating system, application programs, and end users.
• Hardware includes the physical components of a computer.
• The operating system allows interaction between software, applications, and hardware.
• Application programs are specialized software like Microsoft Word, Excel, and web browsers.
• End users are either human users or other computers.

Definition of a Computer

• A computer is defined as a machine that computes, evolving from devices like the abacus.
• It stores data in various forms and interacts with external devices such as monitors and printers.
• Key functions include executing programs and data processing.

Basic Functions of a Computer

• Data Processing: Involves various forms of data and broad processing requirements.
• Data Storage: Includes both short-term and long-term storage solutions.
• Data Movement: Involves input-output (I/O) operations and data communications over distances.
• Control: The control unit manages resources and executes instructions.

Major Structural Components

• CPU (Central Processing Unit): Controls operations and processes data.
• Main Memory: Stores data temporarily.
• I/O Components: Facilitate data transfer between the computer and external devices.
• System Interconnection: Communicates between CPU, main memory, and I/O components.

CPU Structure

• Control Unit: Manages CPU operations.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Conducts data processing.
• Registers: Provide internal storage within the CPU.
• CPU Interconnection: Allows communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers.

Multicore Computer Structure

• CPU: Fetches and executes instructions, consisting of ALU, control unit, and registers.
• Core: An individual processing unit, comparable to a single CPU.
• Processor: Physical silicon component with multiple cores; termed multicore if more than one core is present.

Cache Memory

• Memory layers between the processor and main memory to speed up access.
• Cache is smaller and faster than main memory and holds frequently used data.
• Utilizes multiple cache levels (L1, L2, L3) for performance improvement.

Motherboard Components

• Contains CPU, main memory chips, and I/O chips.
• Hosts processor chip that includes multiple cores and cache components.

History of Computers

• First Generation (1946-1957): Featured vacuum tubes; key inventions include the IAS computer based on the stored program concept by John von Neumann.
• Second Generation (1957-1964): Transitioned to transistors, providing smaller size, lower cost, and less heat compared to vacuum tubes; emergence of high-level programming languages.

Evolution of Generations

• Speed and Technology through Generations:
  • 1st: Vacuum tubes (40,000 ops/sec).
  • 2nd: Transistors (200,000 ops/sec).
  • 3rd: Small scale integration (1,000,000 ops/sec).
  • 4th: Large scale integration (10,000,000 ops/sec).
  • 5th: Very large scale integration (100,000,000 ops/sec).
  • 6th: Ultra large scale integration (>1,000,000,000 ops/sec).

Significant Advancements

• Introduction of complex arithmetic and logical units.
• Development of system software for program loading, data movement, and common computations.
• Peripheral device configurations such as the IBM 7094, demonstrating independent operation through multiplexors.### Integrated Circuits and Third Generation Computers
• 1958 marks the invention of the integrated circuit, revolutionizing computer hardware.
• Discrete components, like single transistors, were expensive to manufacture, leading to advancements.
• Key systems: IBM System/360 and PDP-8 (Programmed Data Processor) defined the third generation.

Computer Fundamental Elements

• Computers consist of gates, memory cells, and interconnections.
• Memory cells store data while gates process data.
• Transistors, resistors, and conductors are fabricated from semiconductors like silicon for increased efficiency.

Growth of Transistor Count

• The number of transistors on integrated circuits has dramatically increased over time.
• AMD Epyc Rome features 39.5 billion transistors (2019).
• Growth trends in transistor counts exemplify Moore's Law, predicting a doubling of transistors on chips.

Moore’s Law

• Coined by Gordon Moore in 1965, observing the doubling of transistors on chips every year.
• In the 1970s, the pace stabilized to every 18 months, sustaining tech growth.
• Leads to reduced costs of computing logic, quicker electrical paths, and smaller computer sizes.

IBM System/360

• Announced in 1964, establishing IBM's dominance in the computing market.
• Introduced a planned family of computers with inter-model compatibility for software.

Microprocessors Development

• Intel's 4004 in 1971 was the first complete CPU on a single chip, signaling the microprocessor age.
• Subsequent chips introduced included the 8008 (first 8-bit) and the 8080 (first general-purpose microprocessor).

Intel Microprocessor Evolution

• Key models: 4004 through 8086 and beyond, showcasing advancements in clock speeds, transistor counts, and architecture:
  • 1971: 4004 with 2,300 transistors.
  • 1982: 80286 with 134,000 transistors.
  • 1997: Pentium II with 7.5 million transistors.

x86 and ARM Architectures

• Intel x86 is a complex instruction set computer (CISC); ARM is a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) used extensively in embedded systems.
• ARM architecture is lauded for its efficiency and widespread usage in consumer electronics.

Embedded Systems

• Billions of embedded computer systems integrate into larger devices annually.
• These systems often face real-time constraints to interact with their environment effectively.

Embedded Operating Systems

• Two approaches: adapt existing OS for embedded applications or design dedicated OS for specific tasks.
• Application processors cater to general functionalities, while dedicated processors optimize for specific operations.

Designing for Performance

• Computer systems are now cheaper, with significantly enhanced performance capabilities.
• Modern laptops rival older IBM mainframes in processing power.
• Diverse applications such as image processing, simulation modeling, and multimedia authoring showcase the power of contemporary microprocessors.
• Businesses increasingly depend on high-performance servers for transaction processing and large-scale networks.

This quiz covers the essential aspects of computer systems, including hardware, operating systems, and application programs. It explores the evolution of computers and the performance aspects that influence their functionality. Test your understanding of these key components in the realm of computer organization.