Computer Organization and Architecture Chapter 1
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What type of instruction uses a concept where one address must do double duty as both operand and result?

Two address instruction

In Zero-Address Instructions, instructions like PUSH and POP do not require an address field.

True

Which addressing mode specifies a rule for interpreting or modifying the address field of the instruction before the operand is referenced?

  • Implied Addressing Mode
  • Displacement Addressing Mode (correct)
  • Register Addressing Mode
  • Indirect Addressing Mode

    • In __________ addressing mode, the effective address is equal to the address part of the instruction.

    <p>Direct Addressing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) in a computer system?

    <p>performs arithmetic and logical operations on data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which components are primarily responsible for bringing data into the ALU for processing?

    <p>Registers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the ALU, data is presented in ______ and the result of the operation is stored in ______.

    <p>registers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ALU may set flags as the result of an operation.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following logic gate with its corresponding operation:

    <p>AND = &amp;&amp; OR = || XOR = Exclusive OR NOT = Negation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the Instruction Code Format in a computer?

    <p>interpreting each instruction code and providing necessary control functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between Computer Architecture and Computer Organization?

    <p>Computer Architecture refers to attributes that impact the logical execution of a program, while Computer Organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some examples of attributes in Computer Architecture?

    <p>Instruction set</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Structure in computer systems refers to the relation between individual components.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _______ is the basic function performed by a computer, which consists of a set of instructions stored in memory.

    <p>Execution of a program</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following computer components with their descriptions:

    <p>Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) = Central Processing Unit (CPU) Main memory (RAM) = Temporary storage of code and results Input/output (I/O module) = Handles the input and output operations Program Counter (PC) and Instruction Register (IR) = Fetch and execute cycle components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of interrupts in computer systems?

    <p>Interrupts allow other modules like I/O to interrupt the normal processing sequence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) in a computer system?

    <p>The purpose of the CPU is to interpret instruction cycles received from memory and perform arithmetic, logic, and control operations with data stored in registers, memory words, and I/O interface units.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the components of the Processor Unit in a CPU?

    <p>Arithmetic Unit and Logic Unit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Control Unit of the CPU controls the movement of data and instructions into and out of the CPU, as well as the operation of the ALU.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The components of the CPU include the ______ for processing data, and the Control Unit (CU) for controlling the movement of data and instructions.

    <p>Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of User-Visible Registers in the CPU?

    <p>Enable the machine- or assembly-language programmer to optimize the use of registers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the function of Control and Status Registers in the CPU.

    <p>Control and Status Registers are essential for instruction execution and include registers like Program Counter, Instruction Register, Memory Address Register, Memory Buffer Register, and Program Status Word (PSW) with common fields or flags.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many bits is the microinstruction divided into, according to the Microinstruction Format?

    <p>20</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many distinct microoperations are specified by encoding three bits in each field, as mentioned in the content?

    <p>7</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Two or more conflicting microoperations can be specified simultaneously in a microinstruction.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many bits does the CD field consist of in the Condition and Branch Field?

    <p>2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a microinstruction in a microprogram?

    <p>A program stored in memory to generate control signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define Control Word in the context of microinstructions.

    <p>All the control information required for one clock cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The microprogram sequencer determines the address sequence that is read from __________ memory.

    <p>control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Conditional Branching in microprograms depends on specific status conditions.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Subroutine = Programs used by other routines to accomplish specific tasks Pipeline Register = Data register allowing execution of microoperations simultaneously Control Memory = Storage in microprogrammed control unit to store the microprogram Mapped Address = Result of converting operation code bits to control memory address</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of interrupts in a processor?

    <p>To save context of current program</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A CPU's connection involves reading instructions and data only.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An interrupt signal in a processor is indicated by ________.

    <p>interrupt signal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main types of buses in a computer system?

    <p>Data Bus, Address Bus, Control Bus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bus is designed to support high-capacity I/O devices independently of the processor?

    <p>High-speed bus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for calculating the effective address in Relative Addressing Mode?

    <p>Effective Address (EA) = PC + A</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for calculating the effective address in Indexed Addressing Mode?

    <p>Effective Address (EA) = XR + A</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for calculating the effective address in Base Register Addressing Mode?

    <p>Effective Address (EA) = BR + A</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which addressing mode is the effective address determined by the stack pointer?

    <p>Stack Addressing Mode</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does CISC stand for?

    <p>Complex Instruction Set Computer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does RISC stand for?

    <p>Reduced Instruction Set Computer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of instructions does RISC typically have?

    <p>Simple instructions taking one cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of overlapped register windows in RISC processors?

    <p>passing parameters and avoid the need for saving and restoring register values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A 64-bit register can address up to $________$ bytes of logical address.

    <p>2^{64}</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components with their descriptions:

    <p>Control Memory = Part of a control unit storing binary control variables General Purpose Registers = Treated as 64-bits for address generation in 64-bit mode New Instructions in 64-bit = Includes functions like Load Reversed, Multiply Logical, Divide Logical, etc. Addressing Modes = Determines the working environment in terms of bit mode</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Microprogramming is an alternative for designing the control unit, where control signals are hardwired.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Computer Organization and Architecture

    Introduction to Computer Organization and Architecture

    • Computer Architecture refers to the attributes of a system that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. • Examples: instruction set, number of bits used to represent various data types, I/O mechanisms, and memory addressing techniques.
    • Computer Organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications. • Examples: control signals, interfaces between computer and peripherals, and the memory technology being used.
    • The distinction between computer architecture and organization can be seen in the example of a multiply instruction: • The availability of a multiply instruction is a computer architecture issue. • The implementation of the multiply instruction is a computer organization issue.

    Structure and Function

    • Structure refers to the way in which components relate to each other.
    • Function refers to the operation of individual components as part of the structure.
    • All computer functions can be categorized into four main categories: • Data processing • Data storage • Data movement • Control

    Functional View of a Computer

    • A computer can be viewed as a functional system consisting of four main components: • Central Processing Unit (CPU) • Main Memory • I/O • System Interconnections

    Designing for Performance

    • Microprocessor speed has increased significantly over the years.
    • Techniques to improve performance: • Pipelining • On-board cache and cache hierarchy • Branch prediction • Data flow analysis • Speculative execution
    • Performance mismatch between processor speed and memory access speed.

    Computer Components

    • The Control Unit (CU) and the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) constitute the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
    • The CPU, main memory, I/O, and system interconnections are the four main components of a computer.

    Computer Function

    • The basic function performed by a computer is the execution of a program, which consists of a set of instructions stored in memory.
    • The two main steps of the instruction cycle: • Fetch • Execute

    Interrupts

    • Interrupts are a mechanism by which other modules (e.g. I/O) may interrupt the normal sequence of processing.
    • Types of interrupts: • Program interrupt • Timer interrupt • I/O interrupt • Hardware failure interrupt

    Interconnection Structures

    • The interconnection structure refers to the collection of paths connecting the various modules.
    • Different types of connections are used for different units: • Memory • Input/Output • CPU

    Bus Interconnection

    • A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices.
    • Buses can be single or multiple, and can be grouped into channels.
    • Bus interconnection schemes: • Single bus structure • Multiple bus structure
    • Bus types: • Dedicated bus • Multiplexed bus
    • Bus arbitration: • Centralized arbitration • Distributed arbitration### Computer Organization and Architecture

    Introduction to CPU

    • The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the part of the computer that performs the bulk of data processing operations.
    • The CPU is divided into two parts: the processor unit and the control unit.
    • The processor unit consists of an arithmetic unit, a logic unit, a number of registers, and internal buses that provide a data path for transfer of information between registers and the arithmetic logic unit.

    Processor Unit

    • The processor unit performs arithmetic and logical operations on data.
    • The block diagram of the processor unit shows two sets of multiplexers that select registers for input data, a decoder that selects the destination register, and an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) operation selector that determines the particular operation to be performed.
    • An example of the operation of the processor unit is the execution of the instruction R3 = R1 + R2.

    Control Unit

    • The control unit is the heart of the CPU and consists of a program counter, instruction register, timing and control logic, and control memory.
    • The control unit decides what the instructions mean and directs the necessary data to be moved from memory to the ALU.
    • The control unit communicates with both the ALU and main memory and coordinates all activities of the processor unit, peripheral devices, and storage devices.

    CPU Structure and Function

    • The CPU must perform the following tasks: fetch instructions, interpret instructions, fetch data, process data, and write data.
    • The CPU uses a small amount of internal memory, called registers, to fulfill these requirements.
    • The CPU consists of an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) that performs the actual computation or processing of data, and a control unit that controls the movement of data and instructions into and out of the CPU.

    Register Organization

    • Registers are at the top of the memory hierarchy and serve two functions: user-visible registers and control and status registers.
    • User-visible registers enable the machine- or assembly-language programmer to minimize main-memory references by optimizing use of registers.
    • Control and status registers are used by the control unit to control the operation of the CPU and by privileged OS programs to control the execution of programs.

    Instruction Cycle

    • The basic instruction cycle consists of fetch, execute, and interrupt sub-cycles.
    • The fetch cycle reads the next instruction from memory into the CPU.
    • The execute cycle interprets the opcode and performs the indicated operation.
    • The interrupt cycle saves the current process state and services the interrupt.

    Data Flow

    • Data flow in the CPU depends on the CPU design and the sequence of events.
    • The fetch cycle data flow involves moving the program counter to the memory address register, reading the memory, and moving the result to the memory buffer register and then to the instruction register.
    • The indirect cycle data flow involves decoding the instruction, transferring the memory reference to the memory address register, reading the memory, and moving the result to the memory buffer register and then to the instruction register.
    • The execute cycle data flow involves transferring data among registers, reading or writing from memory or I/O, and invoking the ALU.
    • The interrupt cycle data flow involves saving the current contents of the program counter, loading the interrupt routine address, and loading the memory with the saved program counter.

    Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

    • The ALU is the combinational circuit that performs arithmetic and logical operations on data.
    • The ALU is interconnected with the rest of the processor, and data are presented to the ALU in registers.
    • The ALU may also set flags as the result of an operation, and the flag values are stored in registers within the processor.
    • The design of the ALU has three stages: design of the arithmetic section, design of the logical section, and design of the control unit.### Logic Unit
    • A logic unit is a digital circuit that performs logical operations such as AND, OR, XOR, and NOT.
    • The functional table for a logic unit is as follows:
      • S1 S0: output
      • 0 0: Ai && Bi (AND)
      • 0 1: Ai || Bi (OR)
      • 1 0: Ai XOR Bi (XOR)
      • 1 1: Ai' (NOT)

    Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

    • An ALU is a digital circuit that performs both arithmetic and logical operations.
    • The block diagram of an ALU shows a combined circuit of an ALU where n data inputs from A are combined with n data inputs from B to generate the result of an operation at the G output line.
    • The ALU has a number of selection lines used to determine the operation to be performed.
    • The mode select S2 differentiates between arithmetic and logical operations.
    • The two functions select S1 and S0 specify the particular arithmetic and logical operations to be performed.
    • With three selection lines, it is possible to specify arithmetic operation with S2 at 0 and logical operation with S2 at 1.

    Instruction Formats

    • An instruction format is a group of bits that define various processor operations such as add, subtract, complement, shift, etc.
    • The operation code field (Opcode) of an instruction is a group of bits that define various processor operations.
    • The bits that define the mode field of an instruction code specify a variety of alternatives for choosing the operands from the given address.
    • The types of instruction formats are:
      • Single accumulator organization: uses one address field and the instruction format is simple.
      • General register organization: uses three register address fields and the instruction format is complex.
      • Stack organization: the instruction consists of an operation code with no address field.

    Addressing Modes

    • Addressing modes specify a rule for interpreting or modifying the address field of the instruction before the operand is actually referenced.
    • The addressing modes are:
      • Implied Addressing Mode: the operand is specified implicitly in the definition of the instruction.
      • Immediate Addressing Mode: the operand is specified in the instruction itself.
      • Register Addressing Mode: the operands are in registers that reside within the CPU.
      • Register Indirect Addressing Mode: the instruction specifies a register in the CPU whose contents give the address of the operand in memory.
      • Auto-increment or Auto-decrement Addressing Mode: the register is incremented or decremented after its value is used to access memory.
      • Direct Addressing Mode: the effective address is equal to the address part of the instruction.
      • Indirect Addressing Mode: the address field of the instruction gives the address where the effective address is stored in memory.
      • Displacement Addressing Mode: combines the capabilities of direct addressing and register indirect addressing.
      • Relative Addressing Mode: the address field of the instruction is added to the content of a specific register in the CPU to obtain the effective address.

    Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes

    • The number of address fields in an instruction format depends on the internal organization of the computer's registers.
    • Computers may have instructions of several different lengths containing varying numbers of addresses.
    • The types of instructions are:
      • Three-address instruction: specifies two operand locations and a result location.
      • Two-address instruction: specifies one operand location and a result location.
      • One-address instruction: the accumulator contains one of the operands and is used to store the result.
      • Zero-address instruction: does not use an address field for the instruction, like ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV, etc.

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    Introduction to computer organization and architecture, covering attributes that impact program execution, such as instruction sets and data types.

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