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Questions and Answers
What is the primary purpose of traffic shaping?
How does the leaky bucket algorithm manage the outflow of packets?
What happens to new packets when the leaky bucket is full?
What is a key difference between the leaky bucket and token bucket algorithms?
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What does a token in the token bucket algorithm represent?
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Why might a router experience data loss when using the token bucket algorithm?
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What is traffic policing primarily concerned with?
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How does the token bucket algorithm handle excess tokens?
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In which scenario are agreements on traffic shaping least important?
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Which network element does the leaky bucket algorithm apply to in managing traffic?
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What is the minimum receiver's window size required for a transcontinental gigabit line?
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Which of the following is a critical step when measuring network performance?
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What must be avoided to ensure accurate measurements in network performance?
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What is stated about CPU speed in relation to network speed?
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Why might performance improvements from measuring not be enough?
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Which of the following actions is recommended to avoid congestion?
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What is a commonly recommended approach to reduce software overhead in networking?
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What is a potential issue with using a coarse-grained clock in performance measurement?
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Which of the following describes an important consideration when changing network parameters?
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What can be a result of inadequate sample sizes during network performance testing?
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Study Notes
The Network Layer
- Responsible for end-to-end packet transmission from source to destination.
- Utilizes multiple hops through routers, managing the communication subnet's topology.
- Involves routing decisions to optimize network performance and avoid overloading resources.
Network Layer Design Issues
- Focus on the services provided to the transport layer and the subnet's internal design.
Store-and-Forward Packet Switching
- Packets are sent to the nearest router and stored until verification (e.g., checksum).
- After verification, packets are forwarded to the next router until the destination is reached.
- Network consists of carrier equipment (routers) and customer equipment (hosts).
Services Provided to the Transport Layer
- Design ensures independence from router technology and uniform addressing across networks.
Connectionless Service
- Involves individual packet routing with no pre-established paths, termed as datagrams.
- Each packet routing is independent, unlike connection-oriented services requiring prior path establishment.
Connection-Oriented Service
- Requires a virtual-circuit subnet where a fixed route is established for data transmission.
- Identifies packets with specific connection identifiers to manage routing effectively.
Routing within Subnets
- Routers maintain internal routing tables dictating packet forwarding based on destination.
- Routing decisions update dynamically based on network conditions using routing algorithms.
Routing Algorithms
- Distinction between Routing (decision-making) and Forwarding (packet handling).
- Two main types of routing algorithms: nonadaptive (static) and adaptive (dynamic).
- Adaptive algorithms react to changes in topology and traffic conditions.
Optimality Principle
- If router J is on the optimal path from I to K, then J to K must also align with that route.
- Helps generate sink trees representing optimal routes for packet delivery.
Shortest Path Routing
- Utilizes Dijkstra's algorithm, labeling nodes with distances from the source node.
- Temporary labels are adjusted dynamically until the shortest paths are established.
Flooding
- All incoming packets are sent to all outgoing lines except the one they arrived on.
- Can generate excessive duplicates; mitigated using hop counters or tracking seen packets.
- Selective flooding sends packets only in appropriate directions.
Distance Vector Routing
- Each router maintains a table of distances to other nodes, updated through neighbor exchanges.
- The algorithm finds shortest paths via iterative updates based on neighbor information.
- Concludes with the complete network's least-cost paths stored at each node.
Count-to-Infinity Problem
- Distance vector routing may lead to loops and inefficiencies, where nodes cannot detect incorrect paths through others.### Distance Vector Routing
- Utilizes "number of jumps" as a metric between routers to determine path distances.
- When a router (A) goes offline, its direct neighbors (like B) may receive incorrect distance information from other routers (like C).
- The problem can lead to a "count-to-infinity" situation, where updates erroneously suggest routes are valid, delaying convergence until the Bellman-Ford algorithm self-corrects.
- Techniques used to mitigate issues include split horizon with poison reverse, a maximum hop count, and hold time, which delays updates after a route is retracted.
Link State Routing
- Consists of five major operations to establish routes.
- Discovery phase involves neighbors broadcasting HELLO packets to establish addresses.
- Delay measurement to neighbors is achieved by sending ECHO packets to gauge round-trip time.
- Link State Packets (LSP) are constructed with sender identity, sequence number, age, neighboring delays, and are flooded to other routers.
- Shortest path calculation occurs after LSP distribution, leading to optimal route determination.
Hierarchical Routing
- Employed as networks expand, to manage growing routing tables and reduce complexity.
- Routers are organized into regions, each maintaining knowledge of internal routing while simplifying external routing knowledge.
- Reduces table entries significantly by consolidating routes for entire regions, allowing effective traffic management with preserved routing efficiency.
Congestion Control Algorithms
- Congestion occurs when packet transmissions exceed network capacity, resulting in packet loss and diminished performance.
- Factors contributing to congestion include sudden influxes of traffic, slow processing routers, and mismatched component capabilities.
- Congestion control strategies are categorized as open loop or closed loop.
Open Loop Congestion Control
- Aims to prevent congestion through design rather than real-time analysis, involving routing policies, retransmission rules, and scheduling.
- Policies include managing packet lifetime and implementing admission controls to regulate traffic flow during high load.
Closed Loop Congestion Control
- Relies on system feedback to monitor congestion and enact adjustments.
- Strategies include:
- Back Pressure: Congested nodes stop data reception, forcing upstream nodes to reduce traffic.
- Warning Bit: Destination routers notify sources of congestion via special bits, prompting traffic reduction.
- Choke Packets: Nodes send congestion warnings to sources, dictating necessary reductions in transmission.
- Hop-by-Hop Choke Packets: Choke packets enact immediate flow reductions at every hop, improving response times.
Load Shedding
- Technique for removing excess network load to sustain performance, akin to electrical grid management.
- Routers discard low-priority packets based on application-defined importance to manage congestion.
Jitter Control
- Jitter represents variation in packet arrival times, which impacts application quality, especially in real-time communications.
- Routers manage jitter by adjusting delayed packets to align with schedules and minimizing overall latency through buffering strategies.
Quality of Service (QoS)
- QoS encompasses reliability, delay, jitter, and bandwidth, which are critical for application performance.
- Techniques for maintaining QoS include buffering to combat jitter, traffic shaping to regulate transmission rates, and algorithms like the leaky bucket and token bucket.
Traffic Shaping
- Involves smoothing data transmission patterns to meet service agreements, essential for applications requiring strict latency and quality control.
- Policing ensures compliance with agreed traffic shapes, optimizing network efficiency.
The Leaky Bucket and Token Bucket Algorithms
- Leaky Bucket: Models a finite queue that releases packets at a controllable rate, smoothing bursts and reducing congestion risks.
- Token Bucket: Allows variable transmission rates based on token availability, permitting bursty traffic while maintaining an average rate, enhancing network adaptability.### Token Bucket Algorithm
- Allows saving transmission permissions, enabling bursts of up to n packets.
- Provides more flexibility than the leaky bucket algorithm, facilitating sudden input bursts.
- Tokens are collected to manage packet transmission, with each token representing k bytes of data.
- Fractional tokens can be accumulated for future use.
Comparison with Leaky Bucket Algorithm
- Leaky bucket algorithm does not permit idle hosts to accumulate permissions, preventing large bursts later.
- When the token bucket fills up, it discards tokens but never drops packets; the leaky bucket discards packets when full.
- Token bucket can regulate host output and manage router traffic, though routers may lose data if instructed to stop under continuous input.
Visual Representation
- Figure (a) illustrates the scenario before token processing, while figure (b) shows three out of five packets successfully sent, with two packets held back due to insufficient tokens.
Practical Applications
- Both algorithms can smooth traffic flow between routers and regulate the output from hosts.
- The token bucket can effectively control host sending rates based on dynamic network conditions.
Transport Layer Overview
- The Transport Layer is critical in the protocol hierarchy, enabling reliable and efficient data transport between source and destination machines regardless of the underlying network.
- It isolates upper layers from the imperfections of lower layers, allowing for standardized communication.
Transport Layer Services
- Provides efficient, reliable, and cost-effective service primarily to the application layer.
- Utilizes services from the network layer and comprises a transport entity that can reside in various locations such as the operating system kernel or as part of user processes.
Types of Transport Services
- Connection-oriented Transport Service: Involves a three-phase connection process (establish, data transfer, and release) and includes addressing and flow control.
- Connectionless Transport Service: Operates entirely on users' machines, mirroring connectionless network services but without control over the network layer.
Transport Service Benefits
- The transport layer enhances reliability by detecting and compensating for lost packets and data corruption.
- It enables application programmers to use a consistent set of primitives across different networks.
Transport Service Primitives
- A transport service interface enables application programs to establish, use, and release connections.
- Key primitives include LISTEN, CONNECT, SEND, and RECEIVE, allowing for data exchange and connection management.
- Each connection is acknowledged, ensuring reliable delivery of transport protocol data units (TPDUs).
Berkeley Sockets
- Sockets are commonly used in Internet programming, providing a flexible interface for connection establishment and data transmission.
- Primitives include SOCKET, BIND, LISTEN, ACCEPT, CONNECT, SEND, and RECEIVE, facilitating server-client communication.
Elements of Transport Protocols
- Transport protocols manage error control, sequencing, and flow control but differ significantly from data link layer protocols due to their operational environments.
- Connection establishment in transport protocols is more complex and requires explicit destination addressing.
Addressing in Transport Layer
- Connections are established through transport addresses, known as ports in the Internet, which identify processes listening for connection requests.
- Related network layer addresses are termed NSAPs, with IP addresses being a common example.
Connection Establishment
- A three-way handshake initiates connections: a connection request sent from one host, an acknowledgment with a proposed initial sequence number from the second host, followed by an acknowledgment from the first.
- The protocol is robust against duplicate or delayed messages, ensuring connection integrity.
Connection Release
- Connections can be released asymmetrically (one party disconnects) or symmetrically (both parties independently end the connection).
- The release process utilizes a three-way handshake to confirm disconnection and ensure that no data is lost during the release.
Flow Control and Buffering
- The transport layer manages buffer allocation and flow control to deal with a dynamic number of connections, adapting methods from the data link layer as necessary.
Special Considerations
- Timers are crucial for managing connection states, particularly in ensuring that half-open connections do not linger after one party has disconnected.
- Automatic disconnection can occur if no TPDUs are exchanged within a specified timeframe, helping to maintain system reliability.### Network Connection Management
- Automatic disconnect rule activates after consecutive losses of dummy TPDUs on an idle connection, leading to disconnection from both sides.
- Upward multiplexing uses a single network address for multiple transport connections, requiring a method to direct incoming TPDUs to the correct process.
- Downward multiplexing opens multiple network connections to distribute traffic, increasing effective bandwidth proportionally to the number of connections (e.g., ISDN line).
Crash Recovery Mechanisms
- Hosts and routers can experience crashes; recovery is feasible if transport entities reside within hosts.
- Loss of a virtual circuit during connection-oriented service leads to re-establishment of connections, requesting missing TPDUs for retransmission.
- Clients must decide on retransmission of the last TPDU based on states (S0 or S1), with multiple potential server and client programming combinations that can lead to protocol failures.
- End-to-end acknowledgment in transport protocols becomes complex due to the variability of remote processes and potential crashes.
Introduction to UDP
- UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless transport protocol that allows applications to send encapsulated IP datagrams without establishing a connection.
- UDP packets consist of an 8-byte header, including source and destination ports, necessary for correct data delivery to processes.
- The UDP length field includes both header and data, while the checksum is optional.
- UDP lacks flow control, error control, or retransmission protocols; user processes are responsible for handling these aspects.
Introduction to TCP
- TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ensures reliable byte stream delivery over varied internetwork conditions.
- TCP establishes connections through a three-way handshake, requiring both sender and receiver to create endpoints known as sockets.
- Well-known ports (0-1024) are reserved for standard services; examples include port 21 for FTP.
- TCP operates as a full duplex, point-to-point protocol, transmitting segments that do not preserve message boundaries.
TCP Protocol Features
- Each byte in a TCP connection has a unique 32-bit sequence number; these numbers are crucial for acknowledging and managing data flow.
- TCP segments have a 20-byte header with objectives including source/destination ports, sequence and acknowledgment numbers, and control flags.
- The sliding window protocol enables flow control, allowing the sender to transmit data while awaiting acknowledgments.
TCP Connection Establishment and Release
- Connections are established with a SYN message, with a three-way handshake ensuring that sessions are properly activated or rejected.
- Connection release occurs when either party sends a FIN segment, requiring acknowledgment and allowing data flow to continue in the opposite direction until fully shut down.
Performance Problems in Networks
- Congestion at routers leads to performance degradation; resource imbalances can cause packet loss due to processing limitations.
- Broadcast storms, triggered by error messages, can severely impact network performance; UDP has been adjusted to mitigate such issues.
- Timely adjustments to parameters such as timeouts can optimize performance; the bandwidth-delay product informs on receiver window size for ideal efficiency.
Network Performance Measurement
- Effective network measurement necessitates careful considerations, such as adequate sample size, representativeness, and awareness of external factors during tests.
- Utilize a systematic approach to deduce network performance by measuring parameters, diagnosing issues, and adjusting one variable at a time.
System Design for Enhanced Performance
- Good design is essential for optimal network performance, potentially requiring overhaul if initial design fails to meet demands.
- Key strategies include prioritizing CPU speed, minimizing packet counts and context switches, and preventing congestion rather than recovering from it.
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Description
Explore the essential concepts of the Network Layer in computer networking, including packet transmission, routing, and design issues. This quiz covers key principles such as store-and-forward packet switching and the services provided to the transport layer.
