Computer Architecture Overview

Holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched from memory.

Stores the instruction that is currently being executed by the computer.

Temporarily stores the right-hand instruction from a word in memory.

Specifies the memory location where data will be read from or written to.

Used to hold temporarily the operands and results of arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) operations.

The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) was the first general-purpose electronic digital computer, built to address the U.S. Army's need for accurate range and trajectory tables during World War II.

The ENIAC was a decimal machine, meaning numbers were represented and calculated using the decimal system, rather than the more common binary system.

The ENIAC's memory consisted of 20 accumulators, each capable of holding a 10-digit decimal number. Each digit was represented by a ring of ten vacuum tubes, with only one tube being 'ON' at a time.

The ENIAC was programmed manually by setting switches and physically connecting cables, making it time-consuming and laborious to change programs.

The ENIAC was a large and power-hungry machine, weighing 30 tons, occupying a large space, and consuming 140 kilowatts of power.

The ENIAC was significantly faster than previous electro-mechanical computers, capable of performing 5000 additions per second.

The ENIAC's development was funded by the U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL), which needed accurate range and trajectory tables for new weapons.

The ENIAC was built by John Mauchly, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Pennsylvania, and John Eckert, one of his graduate students.

The packaging of a silicon chip that provides protection and pins for connecting to devices.

Early integrated circuits with a limited number of gates or memory cells.

The process of increasing the density of components on a single chip.

A technological observation stating that the number of transistors on a chip doubles roughly every 18 months.

The cost of computer logic and memory circuits has significantly decreased due to the increase in integration density.

Data travels shorter distances on more dense chips, resulting in faster operation speeds.

Computers become smaller and more portable due to the miniaturization of components.

Power consumption and cooling requirements are reduced due to the efficiency of denser chips.

Transfers the contents of the Memory Quotient (MQ) register to the Accumulator (AC). In simple terms, it copies data from MQ to AC.

Transfers the data from a specific memory location (X) to the MQ register. This essentially brings data into the MQ from main memory.

Transfers the content of the Accumulator (AC) to a specific memory location (X). Data from AC is written back into the memory.

Moves data from a memory location (X) to the Accumulator (AC). It effectively loads data from memory into the processing unit for further operations.

Subtracts the value at memory location (X) from the contents of the Accumulator (AC) and places the result in AC.

Multiplies the value in the MQ register by the value at memory location (X) and stores the results in the AC (most significant bits) and MQ (least significant bits) registers.

Divides the value in the Accumulator (AC) by the value at memory location (X). The quotient is placed in MQ and the remainder in AC.

Shifts the contents of the Accumulator (AC) to the left by one bit position. This effectively multiplies the value in AC by 2.

A type of computer architecture that uses a limited set of simple instructions, leading to faster execution speeds and lower power consumption.

A type of computer architecture that utilizes a large, complex set of instructions, offering flexibility but potentially slower performance.

The x86 architecture, developed by Intel, is a popular example of a CISC design, widely used in personal computers and servers.

The 8080 was Intel's first general-purpose microprocessor, paving the way for the personal computer revolution.

The 8086 was a significant upgrade, introducing 16-bit processing and an instruction cache, providing faster execution speeds.

The 80286 enabled addressing a larger amount of memory, allowing programs to access more data.

The 80386 introduced 32-bit processing, surpassing the capabilities of earlier minicomputers and enabling multitasking.

The ARM architecture is a widely used RISC design, known for its efficiency and power, often found in smartphones and embedded systems.

Embedded systems are often categorized as either small or large, impacting their cost constraints and influencing optimization and reuse strategies.

Embedded systems face diverse quality requirements, ranging from casual to strict, covering aspects like safety, reliability, real-time performance, flexibility, and legal compliance.

Embedded systems possess varying lifespans, from short-lived prototypes to long-running industrial equipment, affecting design choices and maintenance strategies.

Embedded systems operate in various environments, encountering conditions like radiation, vibrations, and humidity, influencing their design and material choices.

Embedded systems exhibit distinct application characteristics, involving static or dynamic loads, different speeds, computational intensity versus interface demands.

Embedded systems often involve diverse computation models, encompassing discrete-event systems and those with continuous time dynamics, known as hybrid systems.

Embedded systems often interact directly with their physical environment, requiring real-time constraints to meet specific timing requirements, such as response speeds, precision, and durations.

Managing multiple tasks simultaneously in embedded systems adds complexity to real-time constraints, requiring sophisticated scheduling and resource management.