Comparative Study of International Systems

A system is a group of independent units that interact with each other, and the actions of one unit affect the actions of others.

An international system is a system composed of independent political entities (usually called states) that interact with each other and are affected by the actions of other states.

The international system influences what states can and cannot do by establishing a framework of rules, institutions, and norms.

The logic of the international system is based on the institutions, rules, and norms it creates.

Institutions are organizations that govern the interactions between states, such as international organizations like the UN.

Rules are specific guidelines that govern the behavior of states, such as treaties prohibiting certain activities.

Norms are widely accepted expectations of behavior that shape state actions, such as respecting territorial sovereignty.

International systems can be structured in different ways, meaning they have different rules, institutions, and norms.

An independent entity that exercises supreme authority within a defined territory. This authority is not subject to any external power and allows the state to determine its own laws, policies, and foreign affairs.

The system of interactions, rules, and norms that govern the relationships between sovereign states. It's like an invisible network that connects nations.

A concept in international relations that recognizes all sovereign states as equal entities, regardless of their size, power, or wealth.

The practice of having clearly defined borders and using measures like passports, border guards, and national symbols to maintain control and distinguish the state from others.

Formal agreements between states, often negotiated to resolve disputes, establish alliances, or regulate trade and cooperation.

The exchange of goods and services between nations, often involving trade agreements and international organizations.

The use of military force by a state against another state or its citizens.

The practices, rules, and social expectations that govern the behavior of states within the international system.

The idea that studying international systems solely through the lens of states ignores the substantial influence of stateless societies, particularly nomadic groups, who were dominant for much of history.

The historical dominance of nomadic groups, who were the majority of the world's population until the late 19th century, highlights the limitations of focusing solely on states in international relations.

The view that sedentary populations often hold prejudices against nomadic people, stemming from their contrasting ways of life.

The destruction of fences and walls by nomadic groups, representing a clash of cultures and values between settled and nomadic societies.

Nomadic people's raids and incursions into settled areas, often resulting in looting, killing, and destruction, were a recurring theme in history.

The control and governance of vast territories, particularly in inner regions of continents, became possible with the advent of railways and other modern infrastructure, bringing nomadic societies under state control in the late 19th century.

The relative isolation of states before the modern era, surrounded by vast areas inhabited by nomadic people, illustrates the limited scope of traditional international relations studies.

The history of stateless people, particularly nomadic groups, plays a crucial role in understanding the complexities of international systems and the dynamic interactions between settled and unsettled societies.

In many non-European international systems, empires have played a significant role, unlike the state-centric focus of the European system.

In regions with abundant land, like Central Asia or parts of Africa, territorial possession was not as crucial as in Europe, where land is more scarce.

In systems where territory is less critical, borders have a different meaning. Instead of defining clear separation, they might represent relationships with a powerful central state.

Sovereignty, or the absolute independence of states, is not always the dominant principle in non-European systems. Instead, there's a spectrum of political entities with varying degrees of independence.

In some non-European systems, the idea of non-interference and self-determination is not absolute. Powerful central entities can influence smaller entities.

Many non-European systems are characterized by a shared culture and values, often under the guidance of an empire, contributing to a degree of stability and prosperity.

Despite often enjoying stability and prosperity, non-European systems, like the European one, have also experienced conflicts, sometimes on a massive scale.

The European system, when compared to non-European systems, appears different. It emphasizes state sovereignty, territorial boundaries, and a more anarchical structure.

A philosophy focused on living in harmony with nature and finding simple, authentic happiness. It emphasizes the importance of following the natural order of things and living in accordance with the Dao (the way).

The central text of Daoism, attributed to Laozi, containing aphorisms and teachings on living in harmony with the Dao.

A Chinese philosopher and political theorist renowned for his teachings on social harmony, virtue, and good governance. His ideas emphasize the importance of family, respect for elders, and education.

The Chinese government's initiative to promote Chinese language and culture worldwide. It operates educational institutions called Confucius Institutes on university campuses.

A prominent political figure who argued that Confucianism can help promote political stability and obedience, citing his own success in Singapore.

The act of using Confucian principles as a tool for political control and social stability, often by governments.

Concerns raised by critics about the potential influence of the Chinese government in the academic world through Confucius Institutes, arguing they may censor or restrict certain topics.

The First Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, was a brutal ruler who relied heavily on the Legalist school of political philosophy. He implemented ruthless policies and tactics to maintain control, ultimately aiming for a unified and powerful empire.

The Legalist philosophy, embraced by Qin Shi Huang, emphasized harsh punishments and strict laws to control the population and maintain order. It prioritized obedience and power over individual rights and personal freedom.

Despite the ruthless policies of the Legalists, the Qin dynasty only lasted for fifteen years. After Qin Shi Huang's death, the empire fell into chaos, followed by another round of wars.

Confucianism, contrasting with Legalism, emphasized the role of virtue, both in rulers and citizens, emphasizing the importance of fulfilling social obligations and ethical behavior.

Confucianism replaced Legalism as the preferred philosophy for advising emperors after the Qin dynasty fell, emphasizing virtue and social obligations. However, the ruthless power politics of the Legalists remained influential in Chinese history.

Confucianism, emphasizing literary studies, was criticized by some Chinese intellectuals at the turn of the 20th century. They argued that Confucianism hindered economic development and innovation, favoring tradition over progress.

Critics blamed Confucianism for hindering China's economic progress by prioritizing classical studies over scientific and technological advancement. They argued that this focus led to stagnated development and missed opportunities.

Despite its emphasis on tradition, Confucianism, in its interaction with Legalism, has shaped the evolving landscape of Chinese political culture and continues to be a significant influence in the country.