Colonialism and Food Insecurity
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Questions and Answers

According to Lappe and Collins, what is the primary historical factor contributing to the inability of some nations to feed themselves?

  • The disruptive impact of colonialism on established cultural production systems. (correct)
  • Lack of natural resources within those nations.
  • The absence of agricultural technology and innovation.
  • Insufficient prioritization of industrial development over agriculture.

Which statement best describes the 'Colonial Mind' as discussed by Lappe and Collins?

  • A recognition of the sophistication and sustainability of indigenous agricultural practices.
  • A belief in the inherent equality and mutual benefit of trade between colonizers and colonized.
  • An understanding of the importance of supporting local food production to ensure food security.
  • A justification for colonization based on the perceived primitiveness of agriculture in subjugated lands. (correct)

What was the primary impact of 'Forced Peasant Production' on colonized communities, as described in the text?

  • It empowered local farmers through increased access to global markets.
  • It encouraged the development of diverse and sustainable farming practices.
  • It shifted agricultural focus from food crops for local consumption to cash crops for the global market. (correct)
  • It improved the economic stability and food security of local communities.

How did John Stuart Mill view colonies, according to the content?

<p>As agricultural establishments designed to serve the needs of a larger community. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what is the key difference between food crops and cash crops in the context of colonialism?

<p>Food crops were grown for community sustenance, while cash crops were grown for market value. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the content imply about the relationship between colonialism, hunger, and underdevelopment?

<p>Colonialism is a primary driver of a historical process leading to hunger and underdevelopment. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Walter Rodney's work, as mentioned in the content, asserts that cash crops in Africa were often grown under duress. What does this suggest about the nature of colonial economic policies?

<p>They prioritized the economic interests of the colonizers over the needs and well-being of the colonized. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might the legacy of colonialism, as described in the content, continue to affect food security in formerly colonized nations today?

<p>By fostering a reliance on imported food and cash crops. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Wallerstein's analysis, what was the primary driving force behind Europe's transition to a capitalist world economy in the 16th century?

<p>The need to ensure continuous economic growth through the expansion and control of production processes across different states. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Wallerstein distinguish the modern world economy from previous forms of economic exploitation, such as colonial systems?

<p>The modern world economy operates through economic coercion rather than direct political control. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Wallerstein's concept of a 'world-system' characterized by?

<p>A large geographic zone with a division of labor, exchange of goods, and flow of capital and labor. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Wallerstein, which of the following conditions is essential for capitalism to thrive?

<p>The existence of a world-economy characterized by an international division of labor. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which elements are central to capitalism as defined by Wallerstein?

<p>Private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, and competitive markets. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Wallerstein define the 'world-system'?

<p>A multicultural territorial division of labor for the production and exchange of essential goods. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Wallerstein, how is the international division of labor manifested within the world-system?

<p>Through a specialization of regions in different types of economic activities, creating interdependence. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Wallerstein suggests that prior to the 16th century, Western Europe was primarily characterized by which economic system?

<p>The feudal system, marked by a relationship between landlords and peasants. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key aspect of the international division of labor as it relates to underdeveloped areas?

<p>They are integrated into the global economy mainly as suppliers of raw materials. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which organizations are often referred to as the 'Unholy Trinity' in the context of global economics?

<p>The World Bank, IMF, and World Trade Organization. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the original, primary purpose for establishing the World Bank (IBRD)?

<p>To finance the reconstruction of European nations after World War II. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a typical condition imposed on low- and intermediate-income countries by the IMF and World Bank under structural adjustment programs?

<p>Devaluing the national currency to boost exports. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Cavanagh and Mander (2003), what is a potential consequence of eliminating tariffs and controls on imports, as pushed by structural adjustment programs?

<p>Undermining of local industries and agricultural producers due to competition from cheap imports. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential negative impact of liberalizing financial markets, especially for developing countries?

<p>Attraction of speculative short-term investments leading to financial instability. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Khor (2007), what is the relationship between globalization and liberalization?

<p>Globalization is often equated with liberalization, but the connection is not always simple or automatic. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the internationalization of intellectual property rights (IPR) systems through the WTO potentially affect market competition?

<p>It can lead to increased monopolization by transnational corporations, allowing them to charge higher prices. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes 'protectionism' in the context of global economics?

<p>The theory or practice of shielding a country's domestic industries from foreign competition. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of globalization, what 'strange' scenario is highlighted regarding liberalization and developing countries?

<p>Developing countries undertake more intensive liberalization while developed countries retain or increase protectionist policies. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key trend related to Filipino migrant labor in the year 2000?

<p>The feminization of migrant labor due to the majority of Filipino women comprising the export labor force. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the IMF (International Monetary Fund)?

<p>To promote international monetary cooperation and provide policy advice. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of trade liberalization on local producers?

<p>It injures local producers due to global competition. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the meaning of Globalization according to Khor?

<p>Opening up of local markets to the global market. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should the poorer countries do to compete globally?

<p>They should be given more time and flexibility to liberalize. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common criticism of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank's structural adjustment policies in developing countries?

<p>They may require developing countries to liberalize imports too rapidly, harming local producers. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How has the influence of the United Nations (UN) over economic and social matters changed in recent years?

<p>The UN's influence has declined as the influence of International Financial Institutions (IFIs) and the WTO has expanded. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern of developing countries regarding the implementation of Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) under the World Trade Organization (WTO)?

<p>TRIPS may narrow the rights of farmers and holders of traditional knowledge. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the text provided, why were developing countries initially hopeful about the inclusion of agriculture in the World Trade Organization (WTO) system?

<p>They believed it would lead to the dismantling of protectionism in developed countries, allowing them to benefit from expanded exports. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of the removal of subsidies and import protections, as part of structural adjustment policies, on rural producers in developing countries?

<p>It makes them more vulnerable to the direct effects of global markets. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a key outcome of the global economic framework on agriculture, shaped by IFIs and the WTO, as it relates to developed countries?

<p>Developed countries were able to continue with domestic and export subsidies, as well as high tariffs. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a typical condition imposed on developing countries by the World Bank and the IMF in exchange for debt rescheduling or new credit?

<p>Implementing structural adjustment policies. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'free orientation towards exports' mean in the context of structural adjustment policies?

<p>Focusing economic activities on promoting exports. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of international agencies, according to the text, in shaping policies and decisions of developing countries?

<p>They make decisions that national governments must implement, often with little input from the developing countries themselves. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of loan conditionalities imposed by IFIs on developing countries?

<p>They can force countries to liberalize imports, even when it harms local industries. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of investment liberalization and deregulation (opening up of assets to foreign ownership) as part of structural adjustment policies?

<p>Potential loss of control over national assets and resources to foreign entities. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the general effect of the WTO rules and IFI loan conditionalities on developing countries' ability to support their agricultural sectors?

<p>They constrain developing countries from increasing farm subsidies and maintaining high tariffs. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of structural adjustment policies concerning rural sectors?

<p>Freeing up markets and encouraging private sector involvement. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which organization's decisions are made on a one country, one vote system, potentially giving developing countries a stronger voice?

<p>United Nations (UN) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was NOT a method used by colonial governments to promote cash crop production in Africa?

<p>Providing subsidies to local farmers to compete with imports (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What has been the effect of import liberalization without the realization of export benefits for many developing countries?

<p>Adverse effects on rural livelihoods and national incomes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of marketing boards as established by colonial administrations in Africa?

<p>To regulate the buying and selling of specific commodities (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did colonial policies contribute to food insecurity among local populations?

<p>By forcing a shift from food crops to cash crops and promoting cheap food imports (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'Neocolonialism' as defined in the text?

<p>A system of indirect control over a country through economic and cultural dependence (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do powerful nations exploit peripheral countries under neocolonialism?

<p>By 'underdeveloping' them through trade exploitation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do institutions like the World Bank and IMF contribute to neocolonialism, according to Harold Nyikal?

<p>By masking economic support with loan conditionalities that perpetuate dependence (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary characteristics of neoliberal globalization as described in the text?

<p>Economic liberalization, deregulation, and privatization (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of economic liberalization on local markets, as discussed in the text?

<p>It floods the local market with imported goods, harming local industries (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'deregulation' refer to, within the context of neoliberal globalization?

<p>The government no longer regulating the price of products sold in local markets (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core of the IMF/WB’s structural adjustment policies?

<p>Privatization of public utilities and state-owned enterprises (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of labor export as a governmental strategy?

<p>To reduce debt and regulate unemployment (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did colonial governments suppress peasant farmers to promote cash crop production?

<p>By keeping the price of imported food low and removing tariffs and subsidies (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of neocolonialism, what is the consequence of peripheral countries producing the same products?

<p>It creates higher ratio of competition and vulnerability to price fluctuations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of transnational corporations in neoliberal globalization, according to the text?

<p>They often control the local market, forcing local production out. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when public subsidies on social services and public sector corporations are eliminated due to privatization?

<p>The cost of these services increases and access becomes limited, especially for vulnerable groups. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How have structural adjustment policies and multilateral trade rules affected developing countries' agricultural development?

<p>They have created a web of commitments and constraints, limiting policy options for suitable agricultural development. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary impact of the liberalization of imports, dismantling of state marketing boards, and reduction of subsidies on rural communities in developing countries?

<p>Greater vulnerability due to market volatility and reduced support systems. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What implications arise from exploitative landlord-tenant relationships, such as crop sharing systems, on farmers' income?

<p>A significant reduction in farmers' earnings, with a large portion going to landlords. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does labor flexibilization in plantations, through systems like gang labor and contractualization, affect regular farmworkers?

<p>It leads to displacement of regular workers, who are replaced by contractors or labor gangs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given the continuous increase in prices of farm inputs and exorbitant rents for farm tools, what is the most likely consequence for farmers?

<p>Mounting debt, reduced income, and difficulty sustaining their livelihoods. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How have Filipino farmers historically responded to persistent hardship and exploitation?

<p>Organized resistance through peasant revolts and land occupation campaigns. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do support networks, including NGOs and international organizations, play in land occupation campaigns led by farmers and farmworkers?

<p>They offer legal and advocacy support to strengthen farmers' claims and rights. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Trinidad Talibon Integrated Farmers Association (TTIFA) assert their rights over idle lands in Bohol?

<p>By occupying and cultivating the land, establishing their own rice mill, and trading independently. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Wallerstein's World System Theory, what was a key factor in the rise of Western Europe between 1450 and 1670?

<p>The exploitation of peripheral regions to accumulate capital in the core. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of developing countries, what is the likely outcome of decreasing state intervention in agriculture, as suggested by structural adjustment policies?

<p>Greater vulnerability of farmers to market fluctuations and exploitation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do consistently low wages for farmworkers, relative to the minimum wages set by Regional Wage Boards, perpetuate inequality?

<p>By trapping farmworkers in a cycle of poverty and economic dependence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do land occupation campaigns challenge existing power structures and land ownership patterns?

<p>By directly contesting ownership and demanding redistribution of land. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main assertion of Wallerstein's World System Theory regarding the relationship between core and periphery nations?

<p>Core nations develop through the exploitation of periphery nations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might the independent pricing and trading practices of the Trinidad Talibon Integrated Farmers Association (TTIFA) affect local markets?

<p>By creating competitive pricing pressure and challenging the dominance of large traders. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following strategies would most effectively address the issue of worsening peasant situations described in the text?

<p>Strengthening land reform policies and supporting farmers' organizations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Colonial Mind

A perspective where colonizers view agriculture in colonized lands as backward, justifying their subjugation.

Colonialism's Impact

The historical process where colonizers dismantle the existing cultural and agricultural systems of colonized regions.

Minority of Nations

This refers to nations that underwent agricultural and industrial revolutions, gaining economic and political power.

Majority of Nations

Countries that are underdeveloped primarily caused by colonialism.

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Forced Peasant Production

The practice of compelling colonized communities to cultivate crops for export rather than for local consumption.

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Cash Crops

This is the practice of planting crops for its value in the global market, for profit.

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John Stuart Mill

Argued that colonies were just agricultural establishments to supply a larger community.

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Walter Rodney

Cash crops were grown under threat. Highlights the exploitation in colonial agriculture.

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Feminization of migrant labor

When a country's labor exports are primarily women.

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Old International Division of Labor

Historical division where underdeveloped nations supplied raw materials to the world economy.

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"Unholy Trinity"

WTO, World Bank, and IMF

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Purpose of the WTO, World Bank, and IMF

To regulate and govern the contemporary global economy.

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IMF's Role

Promotes international monetary cooperation and economic stability through loans and policy advice.

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World Bank's Role

Promotes long-term economic development and poverty reduction primarily by providing loans for development projects.

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Loan Conditionalities

Conditions attached to loans given to low-income countries like cuts to social spending and trade liberalization.

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Structural Adjustment Programs

Policies that require governments to cut spending, devalue currency, and liberalize trade.

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Liberalization

Opening up local and national markets to the global market.

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Protectionism

Granting monopolies, high subsidies, and tariffs.

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Important aspect of Globalization

The globalization of policymaking.

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Protectionism Definition

Shielding a country's domestic industries from foreign competition by taxing imports.

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Globalization Policy Combination

A mix of open markets and protective measures.

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Strange Globalization Aspect

When poorer countries liberalize more than developed countries.

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IPR

Intellectual Property Rights

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Colonial Taxation

Colonial governments taxed land, housing, and people to force Africans to grow cash crops.

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Marketing Boards (Colonial)

Organizations set up by colonial governments to control the buying and selling of commodities like coffee, cotton, and cocoa. Ensured wealth extraction from Africa.

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Colonial Plantations

Direct takeover of land by colonizing governments or foreign interests, forcing some farmers to work as enslaved people or for very low wages.

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Suppressing Peasant Farmers

Colonial policy that maintained low prices for imported foods (removal of tariffs and subsidies), discouraging local food production and creating dependence.

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Colonialism and Food Insecurity

The argument that colonialism disrupted local food production systems, forcing a shift to cash crops and dependence on imports.

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Neocolonialism

Continued control of former colonies through economic or cultural dominance, often using compliant native elites.

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Neocolonial Dependency

Maintains exploitative relationships between powerful countries and former colonies, creating a system of dependency. Former colonizers control newly independent states.

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Neocolonialism (Modern)

A modern form of colonialism where Western countries exert control through economic support, often enforced by institutions like the World Bank and IMF.

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Neoliberal Globalization

Economic Liberalization, Deregulation, and Privatization.

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Economic liberalization

Flooding local markets with imported goods, harming local industries and increasing poverty and unemployment.

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Deregulation

The government no longer regulates the price of products sold in local markets, and many commodities and products consumed by local consumers are privatized.

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Privatization

Trade liberalization and market deregulation also lead to the privatization of public services and eliminates public subsidies on social services and public sector corporations.

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Labor Export

The exportation of labor force becomes the government’s strategy to pay debt and regulate unemployment.

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Food Insecurity

Being without reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food.

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WTO Agreement on Agriculture (AOA)

Requiring the Philippines to allow the progressive importation of rice.

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Feudal System

A socio-economic structure where landlords own land and peasants work it for wages.

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Capitalist World Economy

Wallerstein's theory: Europe shifted to this for continuous economic growth, expanding production across states.

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Economic Coercion

Control through economic means, not political or colonial force.

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World Economy

A large geographic area with division of labor, exchange of goods, and flow of capital/labor.

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Capitalism

An economic system based on private ownership of production means for profit.

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Capitalism Characteristics

Private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, price system, competitive markets.

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World-Economy and Capitalism

The international division of labor is the foundation.

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World-System

Economic interconnection of states through international division of labor allowing capitalism to thrive.

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Global Framework Imbalances

Disadvantages faced by developing countries due to limited financial, technical resources, and low development levels.

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Crop Sharing Systems

The practice where landlords and tenants share crops, often unequally, favoring the landlord.

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Sacadas

Farmworkers in Hacienda Luisita who earn very low wages.

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Labor Flexibilization

Paying workers based on output, not time, often leading to lower wages and job insecurity.

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Gang Labor/Contractualization

Systems where regular farmworkers are replaced by contractors or gang foremen.

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Land Occupation

Farmers taking possession of land to assert their rights and cultivate it.

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Advocacy Networks

A network that support farmers' land occupation through legal and organizational assistance

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San Roque Farmers Association (SRFA)

Farmers in Cebu who asserted rights over disputed corn lands through organic farming.

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Trinidad Talibon Integrated Farmers Association (TTIFA)

Farmers in Bohol who occupied and cultivated idle lands, fighting for land ownership certificates.

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World System Theory

A theoretical framework explaining the rise of the modern world through capitalism.

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The Modern World System

Wallerstein's book explaining the rise of Western Europe in the modern world system.

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Immanuel Wallerstein

Theorist who developed the World System Theory.

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International Influence on Policy

International agencies influence national policies in developing countries, sometimes without adequate input from those nations.

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IFI and WTO Influence

The IMF, World Bank, and WTO have significant power in setting economic policies that developing countries must implement.

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Shifting Global Influence

The UN's influence on economic matters has decreased while IFIs' and the WTO's influence has increased, shifting power towards developed countries.

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Inappropriate Policies

Policies adopted by major international agencies may not effectively address the specific development needs of developing countries.

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Trade Disappointment

Developing countries feel they haven't benefited enough from WTO rules regarding trade and income, sometimes suffering losses instead.

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TRIPS Agreement Concerns

The TRIPS agreement within the WTO may limit the rights of farmers and holders of traditional knowledge in developing countries.

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Import Liberalization Issues

IFI conditionalities have pushed developing countries to liberalize imports too quickly, while developed countries maintain high subsidies and protection.

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Risks of Liberalization

Developing countries may not realize export opportunities due to import liberalization risks, negatively affecting rural livelihoods and national incomes.

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Structural Adjustment Policies

Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) involve state withdrawal, privatization, subsidy reduction, and trade liberalization.

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Impact of SAPs on Agriculture

SAPs impact agriculture by removing subsidies and import protection, making rural producers vulnerable to global markets.

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WTO Disappointment

WTO was expected to dismantle protection in developed countries but this did not occur, disappointing developing nations.

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AoA Constraints

Under the AoA, developing countries committed to limits on domestic subsidies and import restrictions, hindering their ability to protect rural producers.

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Uneven Playing Field

Developed countries continue expanding domestic and export subsidies, and high tariffs, while developing countries face constraints on farm support.

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Global Agriculture Framework

Loan conditionalities of IFIs and WTO rules create a situation where developed countries can continue with subsidies. Developing countries cannot.

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Debt Policies

Many countries that suffered debt defaults came under the world bank and IMF which wanted to implement structural adjustment policies.

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Study Notes

  • The world is divided into Minority Nations (prioritizing agricultural and industrial revolution) and Majority Nations (primitive and underdeveloped), reflecting global inequality.
  • Some nations are unable to feed themselves due to the history of colonialism, which destroyed existing cultural patterns of production and change, leading to hunger and underdevelopment.

Colonialism's Impact

  • Colonial Mind: Colonizers viewed agriculture in subjugated lands as primitive, justifying colonization.
  • Colonizers like John Stuart Mill saw colonies as agricultural establishments solely for supplying the colonizing community.
  • Forced Peasant Production: Colonized communities were forced to grow cash crops instead of food crops under threat.
  • Cash crops were planted for market value, not to feed the populace, making people dependent and less self reliant.
    • Taxation: Colonial administrations used taxes on land, houses, and people to force Africans to grow cash crops.
    • Marketing Board: Government organizations regulated the buying and selling of commodities like coffee, cotton, and cocoa, extracting wealth from Africa.
  • Plantation: Direct takeover of land by colonizing governments or foreign interests forced farmers to work through enslavement or economic coercion.
  • Suppressing Peasant Farmers: Colonial governments kept imported food prices low by removing tariffs and subsidies, discouraging local food production.
  • Colonialism forced peasants to grow cash crops at low rates, took over agricultural land for export plantations, and forced workers to leave their villages for plantations, encouraging dependence on imported food.

Consequences of Colonialism

  • Colonialism persists in contemporary forms (Neocolonialism), which is indirect control through economic or cultural dependence.
  • Neocolonialism involves control through native elites, exploiting populations for labor and resources to benefit powerful nations.
  • Great powers maintain exploitative relationships with former colonies, creating dependency.
  • Peripheral countries are vulnerable to price and demand fluctuations due to high competition in the products they market.
  • Western countries use economic support as a pretext for control through institutions like WB, IMF, and WTO.
  • Loan conditionalities keep African countries dependent on Western economies, hindering self-help programs.

Neoliberal Globalization

  • It is driven by economic liberalization, deregulation, privatization, labor export, and international division of labor.
  • Economic Liberalization: Local markets are flooded with imported goods, destroying local industries and increasing poverty and unemployment.
    • The Philippines' food insecurity is worsened due to WTO's Agreement on Agriculture (AOA), which requires progressive rice importation.
    • Unregulated markets allow transnational corporations and richer nations to control local markets, forcing local producers out.
  • Deregulation: Governments no longer regulate prices in local markets, and many commodities are privatized.
  • Privatization: Public subsidies on social services and public sector corporations are eliminated, such as the privatization of water utilities.
  • Labor Export: Governments export labor to pay debts and regulate unemployment, leading to feminization of migrant labor in the Philippines.
  • International Division of Labor: Underdeveloped areas supply mineral and agricultural commodities, while more production occurs in developing economies as they merge into the world economy.

The Unholy Trinity (WTO, WB, IMF)

  • The WTO (World Trade Organization), World Bank (WB), and IMF (International Monetary Fund) regulate and govern the global economy.
  • The IMF promotes international monetary cooperation and provides loans.
  • The World Bank helps stimulate economic activity within poor countries through financial and technical support for reform and development projects.
  • Loan conditionalities and structural adjustment programs require governments to cut spending on education, healthcare, and subsidies.
  • They also devalue national currency, increase exports, liberalize financial markets, and eliminate tariffs on imports.
  • These measures lead to trade liberalization and privatization of public utility, harming local producers due to global competition.

Globalization, Liberalization and Protectionism

  • Globalization is often equated with liberalization but also involves monopolization through intellectual property rights and protectionism in rich countries.
  • Developing countries are liberalizing trade, investment, and finance due to loan conditionalities and WTO rules.
  • Globalization combines liberalization and protectionism, with developing countries often facing more intensive liberalization while developed ones retain protection.
  • Policymaking is increasingly globalized through international agencies, reducing the influence of developing countries in decision making.
  • Policies adopted by major international agencies may not be appropriate or effective for developing countries, who suffer trade losses despite WTO rules.

The Global Agriculture Policy Framework

  • Developing countries facing debt defaults implement structural adjustment policies led by the WB and IMF, which affect the rural sector negatively.
  • Structural adjustment policies include withdrawal of the state from economic activities, closure of state marketing boards, privatization, reduction of subsidies, elimination of import controls, and investment liberalization.
  • Removal of subsidies and import protection makes rural producers more vulnerable.
  • The global economic framework on agriculture is shaped by loan conditionalities and WTO rules, allowing developed countries to continue subsidies and protection.

Effect of Inequality on Rural Population

  • Exploitative landlord-tenant relationships persist, with farmers receiving a small share of their harvest.
  • Farmworkers receive low wages, below the minimum wage, and face labor flexibilization through gang labor and contractualization.
  • Prices of farm inputs increase, while rent for farm tools remains exorbitant.
  • Despite hardships, farmers struggle against exploitation through land occupation campaigns, supported by advocates and organizations.
  • The San Roque Farmers Association (SRFA) and the Trinidad Talibon Integrated Farmers Association (TTIFA) are examples of successful land occupation.

Theories on Global Inequality: World System Theory

  • Immanuel Wallerstein developed a framework to understand historical changes in the modern world, saying capitalism emerged after the crisis of the feudal system.
  • Europe moved to a capitalist world economy to ensure economic growth by controlling production across different states.
  • The modern world economy relies on economic coercion rather than political force.
  • Wallerstein argues that nations coexist in a world economy with a division of labor, exchange of goods, and flow of capital and labor, to allow capitalism to thrive.
  • A capitalist system exists within the world-economy due to the international division of labor.
  • The world-system is essential for capitalism through the economic linkage of states.
  • International division of labor is a multicultural territorial division where basic goods and raw materials are produced and exchanged.

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Explore the historical impacts of colonialism on food systems and security in colonized nations. Understand the 'Colonial Mind,' forced peasant production, and the shift from food to cash crops. Analyze the relationship between colonialism, hunger, and underdevelopment, and its lasting effects.

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