54 Questions
What allowed neuroscientists to establish large-scale correlations between cognitive functioning and specific brain areas?
Neuroimaging techniques such as PET and fMRI
What is one of the earliest methods of studying functional specialization in the brain?
Lesion studies
What did Korbinian Brodmann identify in 1909 using staining techniques?
52 different cortical regions
What was the outcome of Phineas Gage's frontal lobe damage?
He recovered to a large extent
What is the term for the study of brain function at the level of the single neuron?
Single-cell recordings
What was the effect of the stroke on the man mentioned in the text?
He lost his ability to laugh
What is the primary limitation of anatomical wiring diagrams?
They do not carry information about the direction of information flow between neural regions
What is the primary purpose of injecting a marker chemical into a particular brain region?
To explore anatomical connectivity and identify where cells project to
What is the primary index of activity in neurons?
Electrical activity
What is the result of the entry of positively charged ions during an action potential?
The inside of the cell becomes positive
What is the function of sodium-potassium pumps in neurons?
To pump Na+ out and K+ in
What is the difference between resting membrane potential and action potential?
Resting membrane potential is negative, while action potential is positive
What is the primary way neurons represent intensity?
By their rate of firing
What is the limitation of tract tracing in studying anatomical connectivity?
It requires examining sections of the cortex through a microscope
What is the primary technique used to study anatomical connectivity in vivo?
Diffusion tractography
What is the primary function of potassium channels during an action potential?
To bring the membrane potential back to its resting value
What is the primary purpose of single-cell recordings in the context of neuroscience?
To identify neurons that respond to specific stimuli
What is the primary difference between EEG and MEG techniques?
MEG is less susceptible to distortions from the skull than EEG
What is the frequency range of gamma waves in the brain?
26-42+ Hz
What is the primary purpose of Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)?
To treat major depression
What is the primary function of an electroencephalogram (EEG)?
To amplify and record the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface
What is a potential advantage of Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) compared to ECT?
It is safer and has fewer side effects
What is the primary difference between alpha and theta waves?
Alpha waves are synchronous waves of 7.5 to 13 Hz, while theta waves are synchronous waves of 3.5 to 7.5 Hz
What is the primary function of a PET scan?
To visualize brain structure and activity during a specific task
What is the purpose of optogenetics?
To manipulate specific neurons in the brain to study their function
What is the primary advantage of MEG over EEG?
MEG is less susceptible to distortions from the skull than EEG
What is the potential consequence of prolonged and excessive use of ECT?
Long-lasting impairments in memory
What is the name of the neurosurgical procedure that involves placement of a neurostimulator and implanted electrodes?
Deep brain stimulation
What is the primary function of a CT scan?
To visualize brain structure
What is the primary characteristic of delta waves?
Low frequency, high amplitude
What is the result of using light to switch on the neurons for vertical stripes in the optogenetics experiment?
Mice responded as if they were seeing vertical stripes
What is the primary function of event-related potentials (ERPs)?
To provide a way of measuring the response to specific stimuli
What is the purpose of combining neuroimaging techniques?
To gain a more comprehensive perspective on brain function
What is the limitation of fMRI and PET neuroimaging techniques?
They are not good at telling us about effective connectivity
What is the purpose of using optogenetics in the study of memory?
To study the neural networks associated with specific memories
What is the advantage of using EEG over fMRI and PET?
It provides information about the precise sequence of events
What is the effect of increasing voxel size in neuroimaging?
It increases the range of different types of brain tissue occurring in each voxel
What is the purpose of using paired-subtraction paradigm in PET experiments?
To reveal information about stages of lexical processing
What is the main advantage of network neuroscience compared to traditional localizationist research?
It can be done when people are not engaged in a particular task
What is a potential application of network neuroscience in diagnosing and treating psychological disorders?
It can be used to identify patients who are unlikely to respond to psychotherapy
What is a potential advantage of using network neuroscience to understand the effects of deep brain stimulation?
It can help scientists determine the circuits that deep brain stimulation is acting upon
What is a potential benefit of using network neuroscience to study brain function in individuals with schizophrenia?
It can help scientists understand how different brain regions work together
What is a potential application of network neuroscience in treating disorders like Parkinson's?
It can help scientists access regions buried in the brain through areas closer to the surface
What is a potential benefit of using network neuroscience to study brain function in individuals with tumors?
It can help scientists identify the circuits that are affected by the tumor
What is a limitation of using radioactive isotopes in brain imaging?
Cost and radioactivity
What does fMRI measure in brain activity?
Changes in blood oxygen levels
What is the name of the technique that uses a diamond-tipped knife to slice through brain tissue?
Knife-Edge Scanning Microscope (KESM)
What is the purpose of using rTMS in depression treatment?
To reduce symptoms of depression
What is the term for the difference in magnetic response between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood?
Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) contrast
What is the region of the brain associated with memory and places?
Parahippocampus
What is the name of the technique that uses a coil to stimulate neural activity?
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)
What is the purpose of using event-related fMRI?
To study neural activity during specific tasks
What is the name of the pioneering researcher who mapped the body in the brain?
Penfield
What is the advantage of fMRI over PET scans?
Lower cost
Study Notes
The Turn to the Brain in Cognitive Science
- Early models of cognitive functions focused on top-down analysis with little discussion of neural implementation
- Neuroimaging techniques (e.g., PET and fMRI) allowed for correlations between cognitive functioning and specific brain areas
- Other techniques (e.g., single-cell recordings) enabled the study of brain activity in nonhuman animals at the level of the single neuron
Methods for Studying Functional Specialization in Brain
- Lesion studies: examining the effects of destruction of brain tissue through stroke, accident, or surgery
- Examples: Phineas Gage, the man who died laughing
Early Research on Structure and Function of the Brain
- The cerebral cortex is divided into segregated areas with distinct neuronal populations
- Brodmann identified 52 different cortical regions using staining techniques in 1909
- Single-cell recordings:
- Placing a microelectrode close to an individual neuron to record the discharge of action potentials
- Examples: mirror neurons that respond to specific stimuli
Measuring the Electrical Activity of Populations of Neurons
- Electroencephalogram (EEG): attaching electrodes to the skull to record waves of electrical activity
- Provides amplified recording of electrical activity on the brain's surface
- Useful for diagnosing epilepsy and tumors
- Measures event-related potentials (ERPs) in response to specific stimuli
- Magnetoencephalography (MEG): measuring magnetic fields created by brain's electrical activity
- Allows for finer spatial resolution than EEG
- Currently used in medical diagnosis
Types of Brain Waves
- Gamma waves: high-frequency waves (26-42+ Hz) associated with active information exchange between brain areas
- Beta waves: irregular, low-amplitude waves (12-25 Hz) associated with arousal or alertness
- Alpha waves: synchronous waves (7.5-13 Hz) associated with a relaxed awake state
- Theta waves: synchronous waves (3.5-7.5 Hz) associated with transition between sleep and wakefulness
- Delta waves: low-frequency, high-amplitude waves (< 4 Hz) associated with deep sleep and loss of consciousness
Neuroimaging Techniques
- Computed Tomography (CT) or CAT Scan: combines x-ray photographs to create a composite representation of the brain
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan: displays brain activity during specific tasks
- Shows where a radioactive form of glucose goes while performing a task
Exploring Anatomical Connectivity
- Tract tracing: using marker chemicals to explore anatomical connectivity
- Injecting a marker chemical into a brain region to identify where it projects to
- Limited to studying anatomical connectivity independently of cognitive functioning
Mapping the Brain's Electrical Activity
- Cognitive functioning involves the coordinated activity of networks of different brain areas
- Techniques for studying electrical activity: EEG, MEG, etc.
Communication within a Neuron: Electrical Transmission
- Resting membrane potential: -70mV due to ion concentration differences
- Action potential: brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along an axon
- Sodium channels open, causing a rapid influx of Na+ ions, followed by potassium channels opening to bring the membrane potential back to resting state
Network Neuroscience
- Studying networks or functional connectivity, rather than just brain regions themselves
- Applications: understanding schizophrenia, diagnosing PTSD, developing new treatments
Other Important Topics
- Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a treatment for major depression
- Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a non-invasive brain stimulation technique
- Deep brain stimulation: a neurosurgical procedure for treating depression and other disorders
- Optogenetics: using light to control specific neurons in the brain
Explore the shift in cognitive science from top-down analysis to neural implementation, enabled by neuroimaging techniques like PET and fMRI. Learn how these techniques have established correlations between cognitive functions and specific brain areas.
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