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Questions and Answers

What allowed neuroscientists to establish large-scale correlations between cognitive functioning and specific brain areas?

  • Lesion studies
  • Staining techniques
  • Single-cell recordings
  • Neuroimaging techniques such as PET and fMRI (correct)

    • What is one of the earliest methods of studying functional specialization in the brain?

  • Staining techniques
  • Lesion studies (correct)
  • Neuroimaging techniques
  • Single-cell recordings

    • What did Korbinian Brodmann identify in 1909 using staining techniques?

  • The correlation between cognitive functioning and brain areas
  • 52 different cortical regions (correct)
  • The effects of destruction of brain tissue
  • The function of the frontal lobe

    • What was the outcome of Phineas Gage's frontal lobe damage?

    <p>He recovered to a large extent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the study of brain function at the level of the single neuron?

    <p>Single-cell recordings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the effect of the stroke on the man mentioned in the text?

    <p>He lost his ability to laugh</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of anatomical wiring diagrams?

    <p>They do not carry information about the direction of information flow between neural regions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of injecting a marker chemical into a particular brain region?

    <p>To explore anatomical connectivity and identify where cells project to</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary index of activity in neurons?

    <p>Electrical activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the entry of positively charged ions during an action potential?

    <p>The inside of the cell becomes positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of sodium-potassium pumps in neurons?

    <p>To pump Na+ out and K+ in</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between resting membrane potential and action potential?

    <p>Resting membrane potential is negative, while action potential is positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary way neurons represent intensity?

    <p>By their rate of firing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the limitation of tract tracing in studying anatomical connectivity?

    <p>It requires examining sections of the cortex through a microscope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary technique used to study anatomical connectivity in vivo?

    <p>Diffusion tractography</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of potassium channels during an action potential?

    <p>To bring the membrane potential back to its resting value</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of single-cell recordings in the context of neuroscience?

    <p>To identify neurons that respond to specific stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between EEG and MEG techniques?

    <p>MEG is less susceptible to distortions from the skull than EEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the frequency range of gamma waves in the brain?

    <p>26-42+ Hz</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)?

    <p>To treat major depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of an electroencephalogram (EEG)?

    <p>To amplify and record the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential advantage of Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) compared to ECT?

    <p>It is safer and has fewer side effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between alpha and theta waves?

    <p>Alpha waves are synchronous waves of 7.5 to 13 Hz, while theta waves are synchronous waves of 3.5 to 7.5 Hz</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of a PET scan?

    <p>To visualize brain structure and activity during a specific task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of optogenetics?

    <p>To manipulate specific neurons in the brain to study their function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of MEG over EEG?

    <p>MEG is less susceptible to distortions from the skull than EEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential consequence of prolonged and excessive use of ECT?

    <p>Long-lasting impairments in memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the neurosurgical procedure that involves placement of a neurostimulator and implanted electrodes?

    <p>Deep brain stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of a CT scan?

    <p>To visualize brain structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of delta waves?

    <p>Low frequency, high amplitude</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of using light to switch on the neurons for vertical stripes in the optogenetics experiment?

    <p>Mice responded as if they were seeing vertical stripes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of event-related potentials (ERPs)?

    <p>To provide a way of measuring the response to specific stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of combining neuroimaging techniques?

    <p>To gain a more comprehensive perspective on brain function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the limitation of fMRI and PET neuroimaging techniques?

    <p>They are not good at telling us about effective connectivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using optogenetics in the study of memory?

    <p>To study the neural networks associated with specific memories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of using EEG over fMRI and PET?

    <p>It provides information about the precise sequence of events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increasing voxel size in neuroimaging?

    <p>It increases the range of different types of brain tissue occurring in each voxel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using paired-subtraction paradigm in PET experiments?

    <p>To reveal information about stages of lexical processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of network neuroscience compared to traditional localizationist research?

    <p>It can be done when people are not engaged in a particular task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential application of network neuroscience in diagnosing and treating psychological disorders?

    <p>It can be used to identify patients who are unlikely to respond to psychotherapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential advantage of using network neuroscience to understand the effects of deep brain stimulation?

    <p>It can help scientists determine the circuits that deep brain stimulation is acting upon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential benefit of using network neuroscience to study brain function in individuals with schizophrenia?

    <p>It can help scientists understand how different brain regions work together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential application of network neuroscience in treating disorders like Parkinson's?

    <p>It can help scientists access regions buried in the brain through areas closer to the surface</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential benefit of using network neuroscience to study brain function in individuals with tumors?

    <p>It can help scientists identify the circuits that are affected by the tumor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of using radioactive isotopes in brain imaging?

    <p>Cost and radioactivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does fMRI measure in brain activity?

    <p>Changes in blood oxygen levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the technique that uses a diamond-tipped knife to slice through brain tissue?

    <p>Knife-Edge Scanning Microscope (KESM)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using rTMS in depression treatment?

    <p>To reduce symptoms of depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the difference in magnetic response between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood?

    <p>Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) contrast</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the region of the brain associated with memory and places?

    <p>Parahippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the technique that uses a coil to stimulate neural activity?

    <p>Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using event-related fMRI?

    <p>To study neural activity during specific tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the pioneering researcher who mapped the body in the brain?

    <p>Penfield</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of fMRI over PET scans?

    <p>Lower cost</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    The Turn to the Brain in Cognitive Science

    • Early models of cognitive functions focused on top-down analysis with little discussion of neural implementation
    • Neuroimaging techniques (e.g., PET and fMRI) allowed for correlations between cognitive functioning and specific brain areas
    • Other techniques (e.g., single-cell recordings) enabled the study of brain activity in nonhuman animals at the level of the single neuron

    Methods for Studying Functional Specialization in Brain

    • Lesion studies: examining the effects of destruction of brain tissue through stroke, accident, or surgery
      • Examples: Phineas Gage, the man who died laughing

    Early Research on Structure and Function of the Brain

    • The cerebral cortex is divided into segregated areas with distinct neuronal populations
    • Brodmann identified 52 different cortical regions using staining techniques in 1909
    • Single-cell recordings:
      • Placing a microelectrode close to an individual neuron to record the discharge of action potentials
      • Examples: mirror neurons that respond to specific stimuli

    Measuring the Electrical Activity of Populations of Neurons

    • Electroencephalogram (EEG): attaching electrodes to the skull to record waves of electrical activity
      • Provides amplified recording of electrical activity on the brain's surface
      • Useful for diagnosing epilepsy and tumors
      • Measures event-related potentials (ERPs) in response to specific stimuli
    • Magnetoencephalography (MEG): measuring magnetic fields created by brain's electrical activity
      • Allows for finer spatial resolution than EEG
      • Currently used in medical diagnosis

    Types of Brain Waves

    • Gamma waves: high-frequency waves (26-42+ Hz) associated with active information exchange between brain areas
    • Beta waves: irregular, low-amplitude waves (12-25 Hz) associated with arousal or alertness
    • Alpha waves: synchronous waves (7.5-13 Hz) associated with a relaxed awake state
    • Theta waves: synchronous waves (3.5-7.5 Hz) associated with transition between sleep and wakefulness
    • Delta waves: low-frequency, high-amplitude waves (< 4 Hz) associated with deep sleep and loss of consciousness

    Neuroimaging Techniques

    • Computed Tomography (CT) or CAT Scan: combines x-ray photographs to create a composite representation of the brain
    • Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan: displays brain activity during specific tasks
      • Shows where a radioactive form of glucose goes while performing a task

    Exploring Anatomical Connectivity

    • Tract tracing: using marker chemicals to explore anatomical connectivity
      • Injecting a marker chemical into a brain region to identify where it projects to
      • Limited to studying anatomical connectivity independently of cognitive functioning

    Mapping the Brain's Electrical Activity

    • Cognitive functioning involves the coordinated activity of networks of different brain areas
    • Techniques for studying electrical activity: EEG, MEG, etc.

    Communication within a Neuron: Electrical Transmission

    • Resting membrane potential: -70mV due to ion concentration differences
    • Action potential: brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along an axon
    • Sodium channels open, causing a rapid influx of Na+ ions, followed by potassium channels opening to bring the membrane potential back to resting state

    Network Neuroscience

    • Studying networks or functional connectivity, rather than just brain regions themselves
    • Applications: understanding schizophrenia, diagnosing PTSD, developing new treatments

    Other Important Topics

    • Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a treatment for major depression
    • Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a non-invasive brain stimulation technique
    • Deep brain stimulation: a neurosurgical procedure for treating depression and other disorders
    • Optogenetics: using light to control specific neurons in the brain

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    Description

    Explore the shift in cognitive science from top-down analysis to neural implementation, enabled by neuroimaging techniques like PET and fMRI. Learn how these techniques have established correlations between cognitive functions and specific brain areas.

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