Cognitive Psychology (all notes)

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Which statement best reflects the relationship between understanding the brain and understanding the mind, according to the cognitive psychology perspective presented?

Understanding the brain is irrelevant to understanding the mind.
Insights into the mind always precede and guide our understanding of the brain.
A complete understanding of the brain automatically leads to a complete understanding of the mind.
Understanding the brain can be helpful, but it does not guarantee insights into how the mind works. (correct)

In the context of cognitive psychology, what is the primary role of 'internal representations'?

To convert sensory inputs into a coded format that can be processed by the mind. (correct)
To act as a physical storage location for sensory information in the brain.
To bypass the need for sensory inputs by generating information internally.
To directly reflect external sensory inputs without any transformation.

According to the 'computational metaphor' in cognitive psychology, what is considered analogous to computer software?

The brain's physical structure
Long-term memory storage
Sensory input devices
Cognitive processes and operations (correct)

Which of the following is the most accurate description of 'symbolic representations' as the term is used in cognitive psychology?

Abstract, internal codes that stand for external stimuli or concepts. (D) Signup and view all the answers

If a researcher discovers that damage to brain area X impairs a person's ability to perform task A but not task B, and damage to brain area Y impairs a person's ability to perform task B but not task A, what has the researcher demonstrated?

A double dissociation (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of cognitive psychology?

To understand the mental processes involved in making sense of the environment and reacting to it. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the principle of 'limited capacity' in running mental operations, as understood in cognitive psychology?

A person finds it difficult to effectively divide their attention between driving a car and engaging in a deep conversation. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the principle of modular design in cognitive psychology?

It proposes that the mind is organized into independent modules that perform specific functions. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to Marr's three levels of description, which level focuses on the 'how' of cognition, specifically the algorithms and representations used?

Representation and Algorithm level (C) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of cognitive modules, what does information encapsulation refer to?

The independence of a module from other cognitive processes during operation. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a 'horizontal faculty' according to the modularity theory of cognition?

Long-term memory (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between single and double dissociation in neuropsychological research?

Single dissociation suggests independence between functions, while double dissociation conclusively demonstrates separation. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In cognitive neuropsychology, what is the main goal of studying patients with brain damage?

To understand how normal cognitive functions are organized and operate. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of 'mental processes' in the context of cognitive psychology?

Internal operations that act on symbolic representations to produce cognition. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of patient HM in the history of cognitive neuropsychology?

He provided evidence that short-term and long-term memory are distinct systems. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is a key limitation of drawing conclusions about normal cognition from studying patients with brain damage?

Patients may develop compensatory strategies that alter cognitive processing. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to the principles of modularity, which of the following cognitive processes would be considered an 'input system'?

Language comprehension (B) Signup and view all the answers

A researcher finds that damage to brain area X impairs performance on task A but not on task B. However, damage to brain area Y impairs performance on task B but not on task A. This is an example of?

A double dissociation (A) Signup and view all the answers

At the computational level of analysis, what question is a cognitive psychologist primarily trying to answer?

What is the purpose or function of a particular cognitive process? (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of how 'operations' are manifested in computers versus minds, according to the symbolic representation perspective of cognition?

Computers use 'copy' functions, while minds use 'recall' operations. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'functional reorganization' or 'plasticity' complicate the interpretation of cognitive deficits following brain damage?

It suggests that observed deficits may not accurately reflect the original function of the damaged area. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Why is 'heterogeneity' considered a limitation in cognitive neuropsychology?

Because it makes it difficult to generalize findings from individual cases to the broader population. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Within the framework of cognitive modularity, if a cognitive process is described as 'obligatory,' what does this imply about the nature of the process?

It happens automatically without conscious control. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to William James' definition, what is the primary function of attention?

To select and clarify a specific thought or object from many. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Given the concept of 'limited cognitive resources,' how does attention help us manage the overwhelming amount of sensory information we receive?

By selectively filtering information to prioritize what is relevant. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of attention, what does the term 'bottleneck' refer to?

The stage of processing where selection occurs due to limited cognitive resources. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of an 'Attentional Network' refine our understanding of attention, compared to viewing it as a single process?

It highlights the interaction of multiple modules and processes in guiding behaviour. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information provided about Hemispatial Neglect and Alien Hand Syndrome (AHS), which of the following statements correctly identifies a key distinction in attentional deficits?

Patients with Hemispatial Neglect typically maintain intact executive control, while those with AHS demonstrate intact orienting of attention. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In visual search tasks, what is the primary difference in reaction times observed between feature searches and conjunction searches, especially in negative trials (target absent)?

Reaction times in conjunction searches increase significantly with display size, whereas reaction times in feature searches remain relatively constant. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'binding' refer to in the context of visual attention and object perception?

The integration of different features (e.g., color, shape) into a unified object representation. (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Treisman's Feature Integration Theory, what is the role of attention in the formation of illusory conjunctions?

Illusory conjunctions are more likely to occur when attention is divided or limited, leading to incorrect binding of features. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How does the reaction time data from visual search tasks support the idea that feature processing occurs pre-attentively?

Reaction times for single-feature targets remain relatively constant regardless of the number of distractors, suggesting efficient, pre-attentive processing. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between set size (number of items in a display) and reaction time in a typical conjunction search task when the target is absent?

Reaction time increases significantly as set size increases, because each item must be individually examined to confirm the absence of the target. (A) Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'Posner's spotlight of attention' relate to Treisman's Feature Integration Theory?

Posner's spotlight explains how features are initially analyzed, while Feature Integration Theory explains how attention binds these features together to form objects. (A) Signup and view all the answers

During an illusory conjunction experiment, a participant is briefly shown a red triangle and a blue circle. If the participant reports seeing a blue triangle, what cognitive process is most likely responsible for this error?

The participant experienced a failure in feature binding, leading to an incorrect combination of the color and shape from the different stimuli. (C) Signup and view all the answers

If attention is not focused on a particular area, what is the likely outcome regarding feature binding, according to Feature Integration Theory?

Features remain unbound or may be incorrectly bound, potentially leading to illusory conjunctions. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Broadbent's Filter Theory, what is the primary basis for selecting which channel of information to process?

The physical properties of the stimuli, such as tone and pitch. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following findings presents the greatest challenge to Broadbent's Filter Theory?

Participants sometimes process the meaning of words in the unattended ear, such as their own name. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does Treisman's Attenuation Theory modify Broadbent's Filter Theory regarding unattended information?

It argues that unattended information is weakened but not entirely blocked, allowing some processing. (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Treisman's Attenuation Theory, under what circumstances is information in the unattended channel most likely to be processed?

When the information is highly salient, consistent with ongoing tasks, or easily identifiable. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In Posner's spatial cueing task, what does a 'valid' trial indicate about the relationship between attention and stimulus processing?

Attention enhances processing at the cued location, leading to faster response times. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between 'overt' and 'covert' attention?

Overt attention involves a physical movement of the eyes, while covert attention does not. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following exemplifies 'exogenous' attention?

Automatically looking towards a sudden, loud bang. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How do the neural mechanisms underlying endogenous and exogenous orienting differ?

Endogenous orienting primarily involves the superior parietal lobule and frontal eye fields, while exogenous orienting involves the inferior parietal lobe and ventral frontal regions. (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to Feature Integration Theory (FIT), what role does attention play in object perception?

Attention acts as a 'glue' that binds individual features together to form a coherent object. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of attention according to Feature Integration Theory?

To bind individual features together into a unified object representation. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'inhibition' relate to the function of attention?

Inhibition suppresses distracting information, allowing for focused processing of relevant stimuli. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'zoom-lens' model of attention propose?

Attention can flexibly expand or contract, trading off between the area covered and the level of detail processed. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the finding that the attentional spotlight can move independently of eye movements?

It indicates that attention can be directed covertly, without any overt behavioral changes. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely impact on task performance if someone with Alien Hand Syndrome (AHS) is asked to perform a task using only their unaffected hand?

Their performance is likely to be impaired due to involuntary actions of the affected hand. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Considering the properties of exogenous attention, which of the following real-world scenarios best illustrates its characteristics?

Suddenly noticing a flashing light while driving, causing you to glance in that direction. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Baldauf & Deubel's (2010) research suggests what regarding attentional capacity during tasks involving multiple spatial locations?

Attention can be flexibly distributed across multiple relevant locations simultaneously during action planning, adapting to task demands. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In contrast to Baldauf & Deubel (2010), Jans, Peters & De Weerd (2010) support the idea that:

Spatial attention is typically confined to a single focus, aligning with biased competition models. (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to early selection theories, like those of Broadbent and Treisman, what is the fate of unattended information?

Unattended information receives limited or no semantic processing. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Neisser & Becklen's (1975) 'selective looking' experiment demonstrated that when participants monitored only one episode, they:

Barely missed any events, showing focused attention enhances perception. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In Neisser & Becklen's (1975) experiment, what happened when participants were asked to monitor two superimposed episodes simultaneously?

They missed approximately one quarter of the events, indicating a cost of divided attention. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What general conclusion can be drawn from Neisser & Becklen's selective looking experiment?

Attention actively selects relevant information for processing, while other information may not be processed. (A) Signup and view all the answers

How do filter theories explain the cocktail party effect, where someone notices their name in an unattended conversation?

Filter theories struggle to explain the cocktail party effect as it suggests some semantic processing of unattended information. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the concept of 'multiple foci of attention' as suggested by Baldauf & Deubel (2010)?

A chef simultaneously monitors the multiple pots on the stove while also checking a recipe. (D) Signup and view all the answers

A researcher measures event-related potentials (ERPs) and observes that the amplitude of the N1 component is significantly larger when participants attend to a stimulus compared to when they ignore it. What does this finding suggest about the role of attention?

Attention enhances sensory processing at an early perceptual stage. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of auditory attention research, the P300 ERP component is primarily elicited by which type of stimulus?

Task-relevant target stimuli (probes) (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to Lavie's Perceptual Load Theory, what happens when an individual performs a task that is low in perceptual load?

Spare attentional capacity leads to the processing of irrelevant distractors. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In a visual search experiment examining perceptual load, participants are asked to identify a target letter among other letters. What is the predicted outcome on reaction time (RT) when incompatible distractors are presented under conditions of high perceptual load?

The distractor interference effect will be eliminated or significantly reduced. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Based on the principles of Perceptual Load Theory, which scenario would lead to the greatest processing of irrelevant distractors?

Studying for an exam in a quiet room. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does Perceptual Load Theory explain the difference in distractor processing between high-load and low-load tasks?

High-load tasks consume all available attentional capacity, preventing distractor processing, whereas low-load tasks leave spare capacity for processing distractors. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary methodological approach used by Rees et al. (1997) to investigate the influence of perceptual load on the processing of irrelevant visual motion?

fMRI to measure motion-related activity in cortical area V5 (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the Rees et al. (1997) study, how did the activity in cortical area V5 change as a function of perceptual load in the linguistic task?

Activity decreased with higher perceptual load, indicating reduced processing of the irrelevant visual stimuli. (A) Signup and view all the answers

A researcher designs an experiment with two conditions: In Condition A, participants perform a complex arithmetic task while ignoring flashing lights. In Condition B, they perform a simple arithmetic task while ignoring flashing lights. Based on Perceptual Load Theory, how would the processing of the flashing lights likely differ between the two conditions?

The flashing lights would be processed less in Condition A (complex task) because the arithmetic task consumes most of the attentional capacity (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to Lavie's Perceptual Load Theory, does attentional selection occur early or late in processing, and how does this depend on task demands?

In high-load situations, selection happens early (we don't process distractions), whereas in low-load situations, selection happens late (we process distractions, then filter them out). (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the hand game experiment, what critical observation led researchers to support early selection theories of attention?

A majority of participants failed to notice the unexpected events in the unattended stream. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How do phenomena like change blindness and inattentional blindness support early selection theories of attention?

They indicate that attention is necessary for the encoding and awareness of visual information. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of measuring early ERP components like P1 and N1 in cognitive neuroscience studies of attention?

They indicate the allocation of attentional resources during early sensory processing stages. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does Treisman's Attenuation Theory refine Broadbent's original early selection model?

It suggests that unattended information is weakened but can still be processed if relevant or salient. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In dichotic listening tasks, why is the finding that participants are better at reporting digits from one ear at a time considered evidence for early selection?

It suggests that attention selects information based on physical characteristics like the ear of presentation. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the key claim of Deutsch & Deutsch's late selection theory of attention?

All stimuli are processed for meaning, and selection occurs after semantic analysis. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In the Eriksen Flanker task, what does a longer reaction time in the incongruent condition suggest about attention?

Irrelevant flanker stimuli are processed to some extent, causing interference with target processing. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does the blindsight phenomenon observed in patient PS support late selection theories of attention?

It suggests that semantic information can be extracted from neglected stimuli without conscious awareness. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What do the ERP results from Hillyard et al.'s (1973) study, involving auditory tones delivered to separate ears, reveal about attention's influence on stimulus processing?

Attended tones elicit enhanced neural responses compared to unattended tones, reflecting early attentional selection. (A) Signup and view all the answers

How does the attentional blink phenomenon challenge both early and late selection theories?

It suggests a temporary limitation in attentional resources, impacting the processing of subsequent stimuli. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does the selective looking task, where participants fail to notice unexpected events, support the concept of 'inattentional blindness'?

It highlights the failure to notice fully visible, unexpected objects when attention is focused elsewhere. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the distinction between early and late selection theories of attention regarding semantic processing?

Early selection theories propose limited semantic processing before attention, while late selection theories propose full semantic processing before attention. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How do findings from the Hillyard et al. study on auditory attention, which uses Event-Related Potentials (ERPs), contribute to the debate between early and late selection theories?

They support early selection by showing that the brain's response to attended stimuli is enhanced very early in processing, compared to unattended stimuli. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How does the breakthrough observation that words from the unattended ear can occasionally be reported in dichotic listening tasks challenge Broadbent's original filter theory?

It indicates that some meaning from unfiltered stimuli can still be processed. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is a crucial difference between Broadbent's Filter Theory and Treisman's Attenuation Theory regarding how unattended information is handled?

Broadbent's theory proposes that unattended information is completely blocked, while Treisman's suggests it is weakened but can still be processed. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following cognitive processes is MOST directly associated with the central executive function, according to Baddeley's model?

Controlled processing of information and task execution. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In Baddeley's 1996 study, participants generated random digit strings while performing a concurrent memory task. What did the results suggest about the central executive's capacity?

The degree of disruption of random generation increased with concurrent memory load. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios BEST illustrates the limitations of the central executive?

An individual struggling to navigate unfamiliar directions while simultaneously holding a complex conversation. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to Kahneman's Single Resource Model, what happens when the combined attentional demands of multiple tasks exceed an individual's attentional capacity?

Performance on all tasks suffers due to resource overload. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does Kahneman's Single Resource Model explain the allocation of attentional resources across different tasks?

Resources are allocated flexibly based on task demands. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In Kahneman, Peavler & Onuska's (1968) study, what measure was used to assess cognitive effort, and how did it vary with task difficulty?

Pupil dilation; increased with task difficulty. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is a key limitation of Kahneman's Single Resource Model in explaining multitasking performance?

It struggles to explain why some task combinations are easier to perform simultaneously than others. (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to Wickens' Multiple Resource Theory, what determines the level of interference between two concurrent tasks?

The degree to which the tasks rely on the same cognitive resources. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following task combinations would likely result in the LEAST amount of interference, according to the principles of Multiple Resource Theory?

Creating a painting while listening to music. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In a dual-task experiment, how is the interference between Task A and Task B typically assessed?

By comparing the performance on Task A and Task B when performed individually versus when performed together. (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to research on dual-task performance, how does task similarity affect performance?

Performance is worse when tasks are similar, as they compete for the same resources. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of dual-task performance while driving, which of the following scenarios would be expected to produce the MOST cognitive interference, based on research findings?

Dialing a phone number manually. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the general relationship between task difficulty and attentional demands in dual-task performance?

Harder tasks require more attentional resources. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In studies investigating the impact of mobile phone use on driving performance, what measure is commonly used to assess the effect of the secondary task?

Brake reaction time. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does practice typically influence dual-task performance?

The more a dual task is practiced, the better performance becomes. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is one proposed mechanism by which practice reduces interference in dual-task situations?

People develop effective new strategies that minimize interference. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does automatic processing differ from controlled processing in terms of attentional resources?

Automatic processing requires minimal attentional resources. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of controlled processing?

Requires conscious attention and effort. (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to Norman & Shallice's (1986) model, what is the role of the Supervisory Attentional System (SAS)?

To oversee contention scheduling and intervene when routine processes are insufficient. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Norman & Shallice's model of action control, what is 'contention scheduling'?

A lower-level mechanism that manages routine, automatic actions. (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to the diary study by Jónsdóttir, M, et al. (2008), what are 'action slips'?

Unintentionally performed actions during habitual tasks that occur when attention is elsewhere. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a 'subroutine failure' in the context of action slips?

Pouring water into a cup before adding coffee granules. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to Logan's Instance Theory, how does automaticity emerge?

From repeated practice leading to memory traces of past task instances. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between Instance Theory and schema-based theories of automaticity?

Instance Theory focuses on memory traces of specific task instances, while schema-based theories emphasize predefined operation units. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In Palmeri's (1997) study on dot pattern judgment, what was the significance of examining 'enemies' (patterns similar to those of a different category)?

To predict that automaticity would develop more slowly for patterns similar to those of a different category. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In studies on automaticity, what does consistent stimulus-response mapping refer to?

Situations where the same stimuli consistently map to the same responses, building automatic associations over time. (A) Signup and view all the answers

How do controlled and automatic processes differ in terms of flexibility and adaptability?

Controlled processes are more flexible and adaptable, allowing for quick adjustments in task strategy. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What role does attention play in the development of automaticity?

Attention is not required for task execution once automaticity has developed. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to the pictorial theory of mental imagery, how are mental images primarily represented?

As internal pictures, recreating a visual representation in the mind. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the core concept of the Functional Equivalence theory regarding mental imagery and actual perception?

Mental imagery and actual perception share overlapping neural pathways and cognitive processes. (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to the Propositional Codes theory, what is the relationship between mental imagery and underlying cognitive processes?

Mental imagery is an emergent phenomenon of symbolic processing, separate from sensory or motor systems. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the disagreement between Kosslyn and Pylyshyn regarding mental imagery?

Kosslyn argued imagery and perception shared similar mechanisms, whereas Pylyshyn proposed fundamentally different ones. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In Shepard and Metzler's (1971) mental rotation experiment, what was the key manipulation that varied across conditions?

The degree of rotation required to match the objects. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary finding of Shepard & Metzler's (1971) mental rotation study regarding reaction time?

Reaction time increased linearly with the degree of angular disparity between the objects. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In Kosslyn's (1978) mental traveling experiment, what was the key dependent variable measured?

The reaction time between focusing on the first location and pressing a button at the second location. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary result of Kosslyn's mental traveling experiment regarding the relationship between distance and reaction time?

Reaction time increased linearly with the distance between locations. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In O'Craven & Kanwisher's (2000) fMRI study, what was the main finding regarding brain activity during mental imagery?

Mental imagery activated the same content-specific regions in the brain as visual perception. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What region of the brain was examined in the O'Craven & Kanwisher (2000) study regarding face perception and imagery?

The fusiform face area (FFA). (A) Signup and view all the answers

In Kosslyn et al.'s (1999) TMS study, what was the primary effect of applying TMS to the visual cortex (V1) during mental imagery?

It lengthened the reaction time for comparing imagined stripe properties. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What was the main finding in Bisiach & Luzzatti's (1978) study with neglect patients regarding mental imagery?

Neglect patients omitted details from one side of their mental images, even when imagining familiar scenes. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In the Bisiach & Luzzatti (1978) study, how did changing the imagined viewpoint affect the details recalled by neglect patients?

Changing the viewpoint caused patients to recall previously omitted details while neglecting the opposite side. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In Andrade et al.'s (1997) study, how did performing eye movements while recalling memories affect the vividness of mental images?

Eye movements decreased the vividness of mental images. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'problem of tacit knowledge' in the context of mental imagery research?

The possible influence of participants' unconscious expectations on experimental results. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In Pylyshyn's experiments addressing tacit knowledge, what was the key difference between the two map-scanning tasks?

The first task measured scanning time, while the second measured directional judgments. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'problem of dissociation' in the context of mental imagery research?

Cases where performance on imagery tasks doesn't match performance on related perceptual tasks. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What was the key finding in Servos & Goodale's (1995) study of patient D.F. regarding visual form perception and imagery?

D.F. showed normal visual imagery abilities despite her impairment in visual form perception. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'problem of individual differences' when studying mental imagery?

The varying abilities of individuals regarding mental imagery. (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to Paivio's framework, what are the two primary functions of mental imagery?

Cognitive and motivational. (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to Paivio, what is the distinction between imagery content versus imagery function?

Content is what is being imagined, while function is why it’s being imagined. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of cognitive specific imagery?

To rehearse and improve specific skills and techniques. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies cognitive specific imagery?

A golfer mentally rehearsing the steps of their putting stroke. (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to Driskell et al.'s (1994) meta-analysis, what is the impact of mental practice on performance?

Mental practice has a positive effect on performance, but not as large as real practice. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What did Driskell et al. (1994) determine with respect to the time interval between mental practice and performance?

The benefits of mental practice decreased as the time interval between practice and performance increased. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In Driskell et al.'s (1994) meta-analysis, how did the benefits of mental practice differ between experts and novices?

The effects of mental practice were stronger for experts than for novices. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of cognitive general imagery?

Rehearsing strategies, game plans, and tactical elements. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of cognitive general imagery?

A basketball player visualizing where the opposing team will move in order to decide where to position themselves on the court. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of motivational specific imagery?

To enhance motivation and increase effort towards achieving specific performance goals. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates motivational specific imagery?

A marathon runner visualizing themselves winning the race. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of motivational general-arousal imagery?

To regulate arousal and stress levels before or during competition. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the central goal of motivational general-mastery imagery?

To increase self-efficacy and perceived competence and improves focus and mental preparation. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples illustrates motivational general-mastery imagery?

An athlete visualizing themselves staying confident and in control even when their form falters. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic differentiates an ill-defined problem from a well-defined problem?

Unspecified aspects and unclear relevant information. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does a 'knowledge-lean' problem primarily differ from a 'knowledge-rich' problem?

It contains all necessary information within the problem statement. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between reproductive and productive thinking in problem-solving?

Productive thinking restructures the problem, while reproductive thinking uses existing solutions. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In Kohler's experiment with Sultan the ape, what cognitive process was demonstrated when Sultan suddenly used the box to reach the banana?

Insight learning. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In Birch's (1945) study with chimpanzees, what was the critical factor that led to successful problem-solving in the food-raking task?

Extended exposure to the tools without immediate reward. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How does the 'Einstellung effect' influence problem-solving?

It causes individuals to rely on familiar strategies even when simpler options exist. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of problem-solving, what is the primary goal of 'means-end analysis'?

To reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In the Representational Change Theory, what does 'constraint relaxation' involve?

Reducing unnecessary or self-imposed limitations on solutions. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How does functional fixedness impact problem-solving abilities?

It limits the ability to see objects beyond their traditional use. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cognitive operation involved in 'chunk decomposition' within the Representational Change Theory?

Dividing information into smaller, more manageable components. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to the definition presented, which of the following exemplifies a creative idea?

A novel artistic sculpture that evokes strong emotional responses and sparks public debate. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does the introspective account of creativity primarily explain the source of creative ideas?

Through self-reflection, internal exploration, and intrinsic motivation. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to Graham Wallas's four-stage model of creativity, what typically characterizes the 'illumination' stage?

A sudden insight or realization of a potential solution. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In the Smith & Blankenship (1991) study using the Remote Associates Test (RAT), what was the key finding regarding the incubation effect?

Participants were more likely to solve previously unsolved problems after an incubation period. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential mechanism that could explain why incubation might improve problem-solving, as suggested by the content?

Incubation weakens strong but incorrect associations, allowing new connections to surface. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is a key limitation of the introspective approach to studying creativity, as described in the content?

It is primarily descriptive rather than explanatory, lacking in-depth understanding of underlying processes. (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to Guilford, what is the primary distinction between divergent and convergent thinking?

Divergent thinking involves searching for multiple solutions, while convergent thinking involves searching for an optimal solution. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does the Geneplore model conceptualize the process of creative thought?

As a cyclical process of generating and exploring preinventive forms. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In Finke's (1996) study, what was the significance of participants being unaware of the object category in advance?

It fostered more creative inventions by encouraging exploration of a wider range of possibilities. (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to the concept of 'path-of-least-resistance' in creativity, what primarily constrains the generation of new ideas?

The strong influence of prior knowledge often acting as an unconscious constraint. (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to Ward's (1994) imaginary forms task, what was a key finding regarding the animals participants created?

Animals were mostly structured like earth animals, exhibiting bilateral symmetry and familiar sensory receptors. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is a noted limitation of the Geneplore model in explaining the creative process?

It does not fully describe the processes involved in generating pre-inventive forms. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the core principle behind 'deferment of judgement' in the context of brainstorming?

Criticism and evaluation of ideas should be postponed during the initial ideation phase. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the expected relationship between the quantity of ideas generated and the quality of those ideas in brainstorming, according to Alex Osborn?

Generating a large number of ideas increases the likelihood of producing high-quality, creative solutions. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In Meadow et al.'s (1959) study on brainstorming, what was the key measure used to evaluate the effectiveness of brainstorming?

The number of useful and unique ideas produced by each group. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of morphological creativity, what is the initial step in applying the Zwicky box method?

Identifying and defining the key parameters or dimensions of the problem. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How are new ideas typically found within the matrix used in morphological synthesis?

By combining two or more points representing different aspects of the problem. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What was the key finding in Warren & Davis's (1969) study comparing different methods for improving creativity?

The morphological synthesis group produced the most good ideas, while the short checklist group produced the least. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of problem-solving in the study of creativity, according to the information:

Creative thought can be studied as a form of not-so-well-defined problem-solving. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary focus when studying creativity from a cognitive psychology perspective?

Understanding the specific cognitive processes that contribute to creative thought. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates a creative idea in the arts from a creative idea in the sciences, according to the content?

Creative ideas in the arts often set a new style or movement, while those in the sciences may introduce a new paradigm or theory. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In what way does intrinsic motivation relate to the introspective account of creativity?

Creativity is often fueled by instrinsic rewards such as passion, and personal satisfaction. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Why might deferring evaluation of forms during creative thought increase novelty?

It reduces reliance on existing knowledge during generation, leading to more diverse forms. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to the information, how can methods like brainstorming improve creativity?

By facilitating the generation of a larger number of ideas and encouraging novel associations. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to Expected Value Theory, what is the primary factor driving a rational decision maker's choice?

Selecting the option with the highest calculated expected value. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a key difference between Expected Utility Theory (EUT) and Subjective Expected Utility Theory (SEU)?

EUT assumes known probabilities, while SEU incorporates subjective probability estimates. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In Prospect Theory, what does 'loss aversion' refer to?

The tendency to feel the pain of a loss more strongly than the pleasure of an equivalent gain. (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Prospect Theory, why might an individual choose a certain loss of £800 over an 85% chance to lose £1000, but a 15% chance to lose nothing?

They are exhibiting risk-seeking behavior in the domain of losses. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the 'framing effect' in decision making?

The preference for options framed as gains, even if they are logically equivalent to options framed as losses. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'omission bias' suggest about people's preferences regarding actions versus inactions?

Anticipated regret is greater for actions than for inactions, even with the same outcome. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does Multi-Attribute Utility Theory (MAUT) approach decision making?

By identifying all relevant attributes, weighting them, rating options, and calculating overall utility. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the core concept of 'satisficing' as it relates to decision making?

Choosing the option that is 'good enough' or meets a predefined acceptable threshold. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In the 'Elimination by Aspects' strategy, how are decisions made?

By applying a threshold to one aspect at a time and eliminating options that don't meet it, until a single option remains. (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to Tetlock's social-functionalist approach, how do people adapt their thinking in decision-making scenarios?

People adjust their decision-making strategies based on whom they must justify their decisions to. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the disjunction effect, what does it reveal about decision-making under uncertainty?

People sometimes avoid making decisions due to uncertainty, even when they have enough information to make a rational choice. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key challenge to the assumption that people are always rational decision makers?

Cognitive biases and emotional factors can systematically influence decisions. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that decision-making is as rational as possible, given situational and cognitive constraints like time and working memory capacity?

Bounded Rationality. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In Tversky and Kahneman's (1979, 1984) Prospect Theory, what is the relationship between the value function for gains and losses?

The value function is steeper for losses than for gains. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'utility' refer to in the context of Subjective Expected Utility Theory?

The subjective value or satisfaction an individual attaches to an outcome. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a typical method used by Tversky & Kahneman to investigate biases in decision making?

Presenting participants with hypothetical gambles and observing their choices. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement contrasts Expectancy Value Theory with actual human behavior?

People may choose an option with a lower expected value due to risk aversion, contradicting the theory. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of risky decisions, what does 'risk aversion' generally describe?

A preference for certain outcomes, even if the expected value is lower than a risky option. (D) Signup and view all the answers

If someone consistently prefers options with lower but guaranteed rewards over options with higher but uncertain rewards, what decision-making bias are they exhibiting?

Risk aversion. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best illustrates the 'risk-seeking' bias, as described in Prospect Theory?

Preferring an 85% chance of losing $1000 over a certain loss of $800. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does the way a problem is presented typically affect decisions, according to the framing effect?

It dramatically changes the decision, even when the expected values remain identical. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'anticipated regret' refer to within the context of the omission bias?

The psychological distress associated with taking an action that leads to a negative outcome. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does MAUT assume about decision-makers?

Individuals seek to make the best decision possible. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What does Schwartz et al.'s (2002) research suggest about the relationship between 'satisficing' and quality of life?

Satisficing is associated with a better quality of life. (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to Tetlock, what role might an 'intuitive theologian' adopt in decision making?

Trying to protect 'sacred values' that are deeply held. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Within the disjunction effect, why do some individuals resist selecting the holiday package while uncertain about their exam results?

Because of a preference of certainty over uncertainty. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors is NOT explicitly accounted for by Prospect Theory?

Social and moral influences. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In what situation would the 'satisficing' strategy be LEAST appropriate?

Diagnosing a disease. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following BEST describes the role of an 'intuitive prosecutor' in Tetlock's social-functionalist framework?

Someone who minimizes potential violations of societal rules. (D) Signup and view all the answers

When considering the information processing analogy in cognitive psychology, what component is seen as the equivalent to computer hardware?

The human brain (D) Signup and view all the answers

What type of cognitive modules are engaged when incoming sensory information is processed?

Input systems (C) Signup and view all the answers

How is a 'double dissociation' best illustrated in the study of cognitive functions following brain damage?

Damage to area A impairs function X, while damage to area B impairs function Y. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best represents selective attention operating as a 'bottleneck'?

A person struggling to understand a lecture while also checking social media. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In Feature Integration Theory (FIT), why are illusory conjunctions more likely to occur when attention is diverted?

Attention is needed to bind features correctly. (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Posner's spatial cueing task, how does a 'valid cue' affect reaction time, and what does this imply about attentional mechanisms?

Valid cues speed up reaction time, suggesting attention enhances processing. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately distinguishes between 'overt' and 'covert' attention?

Overt attention involves moving the eyes to focus on an object, while covert attention involves shifting attention without eye movements. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes endogenous attention from exogenous attention in terms of underlying neural mechanisms and control?

Endogenous attention is voluntary and sustained, controlled by the superior parietal lobule and FEF, while exogenous attention is involuntary and transient, driven by salient stimuli and controlled by ventral frontoparietal regions. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How do early selection theories, such as Broadbent's filter theory, primarily explain the fate of unattended information?

Unattended information is filtered out early in processing and receives little or no semantic analysis. (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to Lavie's Perceptual Load Theory, what is the key factor determining whether irrelevant distractors are processed?

The perceptual load of the primary task. (A) Signup and view all the answers

How would Nilli Lavie reconcile early vs. late selection theories of attention?

Under high perceptual load, early selection occurs, whereas under low perceptual load, late selection occurs. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the conclusion from the hand game experiment, which involves measuring reaction times to cues in different ears, for determining which selection theory of attention is correct?

The hand game supports early selection, suggesting responses are faster when focusing on one auditory stream at a time. This prioritization points to early filtration. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies how 'similarity' affects dual-task performance, and why?

Reading and listening to a podcast about the same historical event are challenging due to competition for the same cognitive resources. (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Kahneman's Single Resource Model, what determines how attentional resources are allocated between two simultaneous tasks?

Resources are allocated based on task difficulty, as influenced by arousal and motivation. (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to Wickens' Multiple Resource Theory, what should be considered to predict the amount of interference resulting from performing two concurrent tasks?

The degree to which the tasks use the same resource dimensions, such as modality, processing stage, and code. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How does performing two dual tasks affect attention, and which model explains most accurately for a combination of visual and auditory tasks?

Dual-tasks will create interference and the Multiple Resource Theory is more accurate. (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to Norman and Shallice's (1986) model, what is the role of 'contention scheduling' in action control?

To resolve conflicts between concurrently activated schemas. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of an 'action slip' in Norman & Shallice's (1986) model of attention?

Action slips relate to behaviors that are typically completed subconsciously; however, they often are not completed to the desired intention. (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to Logan's Instance Theory, how does automaticity develop through repeated performance of a task?

By retrieving stored memory traces for each specific instance of the task. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental claim of the Functional Equivalence theory regarding mental imagery?

Mental imagery relies on the same cognitive and neural mechanisms as perception. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What was the principal discovery from Shepard and Metzler's (1971) mental rotation research in terms of cognitive processing?

The duration it takes to mentally rotate an object is positively correlated to degree it needs to be rotated. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How did Bisiach & Luzzatti's work with neglect patients contribute to the characterization of mental imagery?

Individuals with neglect disorder omitted details from the neglected side of their mental images, mirroring perceptual neglect. (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to Paivio's framework, what differentiates imagery content from imagery function?

Imagery content refers to the semantic content of the imagery while function is the specific features of mental images (vividness, controllability, etc.). (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to motivational specific imagery, what do athletes commonly visualize to improve performance?

Visualizing winning an event. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Why is a problem classified as 'ill-defined'?

Because it lacks a clear path from initial state to a solution. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between 'productive' and 'reproductive' thinking in the context of problem-solving?

Productive thinking restructures the problem, while reproductive thinking applies existing knowledge. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What does the representational change theory primarily address in problem-solving?

How problem solvers overcome impasses by changing their representation of the problem. (A) Signup and view all the answers

How are novel and useful ideas related to creativity?

Creative ideas are both original and useful or worthwhile. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is deferment of judgement?

To encourage no criticism. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Cognitive Psychology aims

Understand how we perceive, react, and interpret our environment.

Information Processing Analogy

Views the mind as processing information like a computer.