Cognitive Psychology - Attention Module PY2025

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of Cherry's 1953 study on attention?

  • The impact of physical characteristics on listening
  • The ability to switch focus between conversations
  • The retention of information from ignored messages (correct)
  • The effects of background noise on conversation

In the context of the shadowing task, what type of input requires strong focusing of attention?

  • The attended input that is repeated (correct)
  • The ignored input from the unattended ear
  • The overall environment of sounds in a party
  • Auditory input from both ears

What does the Cocktail Party Phenomenon illustrate about attention?

  • People are fully aware of all conversations happening around them
  • People can't switch their focus between conversations
  • People only hear physical properties of the messages
  • People can concentrate on one conversation despite distractions (correct)

What was the outcome regarding what is retained from the unattended message?

<p>Only physical properties like tonality are noticed (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What information was participants unable to recognize in Cherry's dichotic listening task?

<p>The content of the message (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of unattended messages was found to be retained during the studies?

<p>Physical characteristics like voice pitch (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the filtering of unattended messages?

<p>It seems to happen very early in sensory processing (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which task does overt repetition of a message demand a focus on a specific input?

<p>Shadowing task (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does change blindness indicate about human perception?

<p>Attention can influence the ability to detect changes in the environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the 'invisible gorilla' experiment, what does inattentional blindness refer to?

<p>Missing obvious events while focusing on a different task. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does deliberate attentional control relate to searching for changes?

<p>It necessitates examining specific locations systematically. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary task in the ball-passing demonstration conducted by Simons & Chabris?

<p>Count how many times players in white shirts pass the ball. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common phenomenon is demonstrated through 'change blindness'?

<p>Change can only be detected when attention is strongly focused. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which movie example demonstrates background changes that can evoke change blindness?

<p>Ace Ventura (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the involvement of attention in tasks have on perception?

<p>It can hinder the recognition of other events. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of not actively focusing attention during visual tasks?

<p>Failure to notice changes or events. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the filter model proposed by Broadbent?

<p>To determine which information is attended to in a given moment (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does reflexive attention refer to in the context of Broadbent's filter model?

<p>Attention that is captured automatically by salient stimuli (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes 'salience' in the context of attention?

<p>The state by which an item stands out relative to its surroundings (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can a stimulus be rendered salient according to the content?

<p>By contrasting it with its neighborhood (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement distinguishes top-down attention from bottom-up attention?

<p>Top-down attention is voluntary; bottom-up is controlled by stimuli. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What could potentially NOT influence which channel of sensory information is attended to?

<p>The duration the stimuli has been present (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Broadbent's model, which factors can guide attention?

<p>Goal-directed intentions and salient stimuli (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following illustrates the concept of salience using color?

<p>A yellow object with a high contrast to its background (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of subliminal priming when the prime does not relate to the current behavioral goals?

<p>It has no effect on behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lavie's theory of perceptual load, what occurs during difficult tasks?

<p>Selection is early. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which model suggests that subliminal stimuli are processed for their meaning?

<p>Late selection model. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a scenario where the task is to find a specific DVD among many, what type of attentional selection is most likely used?

<p>Early selection due to high demands. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does subliminal priming have when the prime is directly related to the intended response?

<p>It accelerates the response time. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What determines whether selection is early or late according to the discussed theories?

<p>The relevance of the stimuli. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a two-choice response task, what should participants do with task-irrelevant distractor letters?

<p>Ignore them. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main principle of Treisman's attenuator model?

<p>It enables initially unattended information to become attended. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would happen during an easy task that requires minimal attentional resources, according to Lavie's load theory?

<p>Selection is late. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of early-selection models?

<p>Unattended information may influence decision-making. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage of late-selection models?

<p>They are resource demanding. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of attention models, what do late-selection models emphasize?

<p>All information is processed thoroughly before selection. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best encapsulates the evaluation of late-selection models?

<p>They require significant cognitive resources for complete analysis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable benefit of late-selection models over early-selection models?

<p>They are less likely to miss important information. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to late-selection models, which type of information is analyzed?

<p>Both attended and unattended information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which model specifies that information is decaying in early sensory memory?

<p>Broadbent's filter model. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which task demonstrates automaticity through consistent mapping?

<p>Only letters in Memory Set with numbers in Display Set (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes controlled processing from automatic processing?

<p>Controlled processing requires more cognitive resources (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the varied mapping condition, what is required during the task?

<p>Controlled comparison of items from both sets (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which activity is automaticity typically observed?

<p>Practicing a skill extensively (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of automatic processing on task efficiency?

<p>It typically enhances task performance and speed (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Schneider & Shiffrin's 1977 study, what does 'Fixation' refer to?

<p>The focus point before the Display Set appears (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What challenge does varied mapping present that consistent mapping does not?

<p>Items can belong to both the Memory and Display Sets (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of processing generally leads to faster response times?

<p>Automatic processing due to routine execution (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Change blindness

A phenomenon where people fail to notice significant changes in their environment.

Inattentional blindness

A failure to perceive an unexpected, visual object or event when attention is engaged elsewhere.

Top-down control

The intentional and voluntary allocation of attention to a specific location or feature.

Location-by-location search

Methodically checking each location in a scene to find something.

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Gorilla effect

A demonstration of inattentional blindness; people often miss a prominent item while engaged in a task.

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Visual attention

The process of selectively concentrating on specific aspects of a scene while ignoring other aspects.

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Examples of visual change blindness

People can fail to notice significant changes in the environment around them.

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Film examples of inattentional blindness

Movies demonstrate how focused attention can lead to missing obvious details.

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Cocktail Party Phenomenon

The ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like a party, while ignoring other conversations.

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Dichotic Listening

An experimental technique where different auditory messages are presented to each ear simultaneously.

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Shadowing Task

An experiment where participants repeat one message out loud while simultaneously listening to another message.

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Unattended Message

The message in dichotic listening that is not being attended to.

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What's remembered from the unattended message?

Mostly physical properties like tone of voice are noticed, but very little meaning, language changes, gender changes or reverse speech.

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Early Filtering

The idea that the unattended message is filtered out early in sensory processing, preventing meaningful information from being processed.

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What does early filtering explain?

Why little information from the unattended message is retained, even if the message changes language, speaker gender, or is spoken in reverse.

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How does the cocktail party affect attention?

It demonstrates that we can selectively attend to one stimulus while ignoring others, even when they have similar physical properties.

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Attenuator Model

An early-selection model of attention that allows initially unattended information to become attended, while other information decays in sensory memory. Attended information affects behavior, but unattended information has no influence.

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Late-Selection Model

A model of attention where all information is processed for meaning before selection takes place based on physical properties and meaning. This ensures all information is processed, but can be very resource-intensive.

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How does the Attenuator Model differ from Broadbent's Filter Model?

Broadbent's model completely blocks unattended information, while the Attenuator Model allows some unattended information to be processed, but at a lower level.

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What is the advantage of a Late-Selection Model?

It ensures all information is processed, reducing the chance of missing important information.

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What is the disadvantage of a Late-Selection Model?

It is resource-intensive, requiring more cognitive effort to process all information.

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How can we test Late-Selection Models?

By presenting participants with unattended information and measuring if it affects their behavior, even if they are not consciously aware of it.

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What does the Late-Selection Model assume?

All information is fully processed, including unattended information that we are not consciously aware of.

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What is a key difference between Early and Late Selection models?

Early selection models filter information before meaning is fully processed, while late selection models process all information before filtering.

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Filter Model

A theory explaining how we select which information to attend to from multiple sensory inputs. It proposes a filter that blocks out unattended information, allowing only the attended information to be processed.

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Top-down Attention

The intentional and goal-directed process of controlling attention, where we consciously choose what to focus on.

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Bottom-up Attention

The involuntary and automatic shift of attention triggered by a salient stimulus, like a loud noise or a bright flash.

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Salience

The degree to which a stimulus stands out from its surroundings, attracting attention.

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Contrast and Salience

The contrast between a stimulus and its surroundings determines its salience. Greater contrast leads to greater salience.

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What guides channel selection?

Attention, either voluntarily (top-down) or involuntarily (bottom-up), determines which sensory channel (e.g., vision, audition) is attended to.

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What guides information selection?

Within an attended channel, basic physical features (e.g., loudness, brightness) guide the selection of specific information.

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Automatic Processing

Performing a task without conscious effort, like walking, once learned.

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Controlled Processing

Performing a task that requires conscious attention and effort, such as driving a car for the first time.

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Consistent Mapping

A task where the same stimuli are consistently assigned to the same categories.

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Varied Mapping

A task where the stimuli can be assigned to different categories.

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Memory Set

The set of stimuli the participant needs to remember.

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Display Set

The set of stimuli presented to the participant.

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Target Detection (Automatic)

Quickly recognizing a target due to consistent mapping, like finding a letter among numbers.

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Target Search (Controlled)

Slowly searching for a target due to varied mapping, like finding a letter among both letters and numbers.

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Subliminal priming

A technique where a stimulus (the prime) is presented briefly and below the threshold of conscious awareness, influencing a subsequent response without conscious knowledge of the prime.

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Subliminal prime effectiveness

Subliminal primes are only effective when they are relevant to the current goal or task. If the prime isn't related, it has no effect.

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Early selection model

This model proposes that attention filters out irrelevant stimuli early in processing, meaning that unattended information is not retained.

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Perceptual Load Theory

The theory proposes that attentional capacity is limited, so difficult tasks (high load) require early selection to free up resources, while easy tasks (low load) allow late selection.

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Easy tasks and selection

When tasks are easy, there are enough resources available for late selection, meaning that unattended information is still processed for meaning.

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Difficult tasks and selection

Difficult tasks demand more resources, forcing early selection. This means that unattended information is filtered out before reaching the meaning level.

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Attentional resource allocation

The process of distributing attentional resources among different tasks or stimuli, depending on the demands and importance of each.

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Study Notes

Cognitive Psychology - Module PY2025

  • Dr. André Szameitat's contact information is provided:
    • Email: [email protected]
    • Office hours: Wednesday 11:30-12:30 and Thursday 1:30-2:30
    • Room: GB263
    • Lecture links: YouTube, feedback questionnaire, Facebook group

Today's Schedule

  • Introduction to Attention
  • Models of Attention
  • Automaticity
  • Demonstration: Stroop Interference

Introduction to Attention

  • Definition: "Everybody knows what attention is." (William James, 1890)

  • Attention is taking possession of the mind, in a clear and vivid form, of one object over others. It involves focusing and concentrating consciousness.

  • Attention as a cognitive process: Selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment.

  • Experimental research on attention started in the 1950s

  • Attention in perception:

    • Richness of detail in our surroundings is experienced
    • Attention is necessary to notice details of objects

  • Demonstration:

    • Close your eyes.
    • Think about the colors of other people's clothing.
    • The colors of the chairs in the lecture room.
    • The color of your own shirt.

  • Another Demonstration: Change blindness

    • Change blindness demonstrations: Airplane, Dinner, Money (instructions and link provided for online demonstrations)

  • Explanation of change blindness (Flicker paradigm):

    • Bottom-up processing optimized for continuous input
    • Changes perceived through motion (high salience)
    • Brief blank screen between images disrupts continuous input
    • Changes detected through deliberate attentional top-down processing (location by location).

  • Change blindness works outside the lab: Swap conversation partners!

  • Final demonstration: Players in white shirts passing a ball. (instructions and YouTube links given for this demonstration).

  • The "invisible gorilla" is an example of inattentional blindness.

  • Involvement of attention in other tasks can lead to missing obvious events.

  • Examples in movies:

    • Ace Ventura
    • Harry Potter
    • Speed (examples where visual changes in movies go unnoticed). -The use of this concept in many other movies. (further examples in movies mentioned).

  • Implications in perception:

    • Eye-witness testimony: The possibility of errors due to inattention to details.
    • Driving: Elderly drivers experience slower change detection
    • Human-machine interaction: The importance of accurately recognizing and processing essential visual information (example of radar operators).

Introduction - Summary

  • Attention: focusing on one stimulus ignoring all others
  • Perception: Attention affects perception including:
    • Change blindness
    • Inattentional blindness
    • More processes like: Learning, Working Memory, and Vigilance.
  • Attention is a central and important topic in cognitive psychology.

Models of Attention

  • Attention: focusing on a particular stimulus while ignoring others.

  • Key research questions:

    • How do people select stimuli to attend to from the environment, and which to ignore?
    • At what level is information processed when attention is paid to a stimulus? (Physical characteristics or Meaning?)
    • What happens to stimuli that are not attended to? Cocktail party phenomenon

  • Cherry (1953): Investigated the cocktail party effect scientifically

  • Dichotic listening paradigm: Different messages played to each ear.

  • Shadowing task: Repeat message from one ear

  • Attended vs. unattended messages: Mostly physical properties noted in unattended messages! Meaning, language change and gender change not likely noticed.

  • Filter model (Broadbent, 1958): Channels for each modality (ear, eye) to process.

  • Which channel is attended to? Vision, Audition, etc.

  • Guided by attention, top-down or bottom-up. Reflective attention by stimulus. Also salient stimuli.

  • Salience: State or quality of a stimulus standing out relative to its neighbors, typically due to contrasting features. Examples of salient stimuli: differences in color, among other attributes.

  • Filter model (Broadbent, 1958):

    • Stimuli passing the filter become attentional focus.
    • Unattended stimuli completely ignored

  • Early selection models: Attended inputs are selected, and rest decays. Unattended inputs has no impact.

  • Attenuator model (Treisman, 1964) different mechanism than All-or-nothing Filter, a gradual attenuator. Thresholds of activation affect processing. Context, priming and/or importance of stimuli matter.

  • Late selection models: Deutsch & Deutsch (1963), and Norman (1968). - All of the information gets a full analysis for meaning, based on the physical properties.

  • Testing Late selection models: How to test whether unaware information affects behaviour. (e.g., Subliminal priming: Dehaene et al., 1998)

  • Subliminal Priming works well for the test of Late Selection models. Differences in participants' behaviors according to how quickly participants process numbers during these tests.

  • Differences between Subliminal Priming (Dehaene et al. 1998 and James Vicary 1957) in the results

  • Theory of perceptual Load (Lavie, 1995, 2000): Early selection in difficult task, late in easy task.

Automaticity

  • Controlled vs. automatic processing:

  • Definitions and key features (limited/unlimited capacity; requiring or not requiring attention; rather slow/rather fast; effortful/effortless; aware/outside awareness; controllable/uncontrollable; flexible/inflexible; changing circumstances).

  • Examples of automatically executed processes in everyday life are given (walking, driving; and other examples) Controlled vs, automatic processing distinctions.

  • Schneider & Shiffrin (1977) study and implications. Consistent/varied mapping, and time taken on target detection.

  • How do activities become automatic?

    • Practice!

  • Logan's instance theory (1988):

    • Unpracticed: General algorithm (controlled)
    • Practiced: Memory retrieval of past solutions (automatic)

  • Example: Multiplication 5 x 4 initially as a controlled process, and with practice as an automatic process. Examples of automated processes are given (5x4, others).

  • Dangers of automaticity: Examples of missing things as a result of automatic processes (highway hypnosis, tourists looking in wrong directions).

  • Inflexibility of automatic processes. Shiffrin and Schneider (1977) demonstrating inflexibility to swapped mapping of stimuli.

Stroop Effect

  • Stroop task and instructions (naming the color of the ink of the word): Examples of words written in various colored inks.

  • Finding: Naming the ink color of the word is slower than naming the color of the patches.. Instructions explaining the process

  • Stroop interference: Reading is automatic, but incompatible word information interferes with color naming task

  • Controlled processes needed to override automatic interference

  • Supporting evidence (slow readers, second language words)

  • Demonstration (instructions for a partner activity).

  • Stroop summary: automaticity, overriding automatic processes by using control functions, and executive functions/processes.

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