Cognitive Psychology: ACC and Rule-Switching
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Questions and Answers

What is the role of the Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) in tasks?

  • It responds primarily with errors only, without monitoring.
  • It predicts activity in the lateral PFC based on conflict. (correct)
  • It is solely responsible for color-naming tasks.
  • It has no role in decision-making processes.

    • Which symptom is displayed by lateral PFC patients during rule-switching tasks?

  • Increased speed in changing rules.
  • Difficulty in tasks that require monitoring.
  • Enhanced cognitive flexibility.
  • Perseveration, or getting stuck on a rule. (correct)

    • What is the relationship between the ACC and the Stroop Effect?

  • ACC aids word reading in color-naming tasks.
  • ACC activity decreases automated processes.
  • ACC activity indicates conflict in tasks with novel demands. (correct)
  • ACC is irrelevant to the Stroop Effect.

    • How does the Right Inferior Prefrontal Cortex contribute to action control?

    <p>It connects with subthalamic nucleus for inhibitory control. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of Error-Related Negativity (ERN) in cognitive tasks?

    <p>It indicates errors but also other monitoring tasks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the possibility of rule-switching suggest about cognitive flexibility?

    <p>Inability to switch rules indicates rigid thinking. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In decision-making, what role does the lateral PFC play?

    <p>It aids in evaluating multiple rules and switching between them. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the Stroop Effect in cognitive psychology?

    <p>Automated word reading can disrupt attention on color tasks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region provides coding for motivation and value in decision-making?

    <p>Ventral Striatum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the VTA (Ventral Tegmental Area) play in the dopamine system?

    <p>It signals changes in information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which network is associated with cognitive factors in decision-making?

    <p>Salience network (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key function of the vmPFC (ventromedial prefrontal cortex) in decision-making?

    <p>Encoding subjective value (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of cognitive control is NOT primarily associated with frontal lobe structures?

    <p>Emotional Regulation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Expected Value represent in decision-making?

    <p>The average reward of a probabilistic process (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system in the Dual System Model of Cognition is 'fast, parallel, automatic, and context-dependent'?

    <p>System 1 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key psychological principle is known for explaining decreased sensitivity to differences as the total amount increases?

    <p>Weber-Fechner Law (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Rational Choice Theory, which of the following assumptions is made about people?

    <p>They are fully informed and rational (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is associated with dopaminergic pathways important for valuing rewards?

    <p>Ventral Tegmental Area (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to dopamine release when a reward matches expectations?

    <p>Remains unchanged (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive state is linked to emotionally guided decisions in the Dual System Model?

    <p>Hot cognition (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is Expected Value calculated?

    <p>Probability multiplied by utility (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of dopamine in the context of decision-making and valuation?

    <p>It acts as a signal for reward (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process does Rational Choice Theory imply individuals engage in?

    <p>Maximizing expected value (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is primarily associated with executive control?

    <p>Pre-Frontal Cortex (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The function of cognitive control is largely characterized as domain-general because it is:

    <p>Slow and attentionally demanding (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does rule-switching in cognitive control involve?

    <p>Adapting to new instructions held in working memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is NOT considered part of the prefrontal cortex?

    <p>Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Understanding the hierarchical model of lateral prefrontal cortex involves recognizing that:

    <p>Increased cognitive complexity occurs from posterior to anterior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following functions is included in goal-directed behavior?

    <p>Monitoring Progress (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, participants are required to match cards based on:

    <p>One of three hidden rules (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cognitive inhibition is best described as the ability to:

    <p>Suppress inappropriate actions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of domain-specific processing?

    <p>Fast processing with little conscious awareness (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is involved in behavioral control through the basal ganglia?

    <p>Caudate Nucleus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive control function does planning primarily rely on?

    <p>Goal Maintenance (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The lateral prefrontal cortex is particularly relevant for:

    <p>Cognitive Task Context (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of domain-general processing?

    <p>Working memory tasks (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of reward prediction error (RPE) in the Temporal Difference Learning Model?

    <p>It measures the difference between expected and actual rewards. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain regions are associated with System 1 cognition according to the Dual System Model?

    <p>Ventral striatum and orbital frontal cortex. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of delayed gratification, what does temporal discounting refer to?

    <p>The tendency to prefer immediate rewards over larger future rewards. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does damage to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) influence temporal discounting?

    <p>It impairs the ability to assess the value of immediate rewards. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement regarding the Marshmallow Experiment's findings is accurate?

    <p>High delayers exhibit greater differentiation in brain activity during decision-making tasks. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system in the Dual System Model is primarily associated with evidence-based decision-making?

    <p>System 2: ‘Cool’ (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What brain activity is linked to the increased valuation of immediately available rewards?

    <p>Increased activation of the ventral striatum. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is primarily responsible for self-control in decision-making according to the Dual System Model?

    <p>Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Rule Switching in WCST

    The ability to change rules in a task, like the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST).

    Inferior Frontal Sulcus

    A brain region related to rule switching in the WCST.

    Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

    A brain region involved in error detection and monitoring, also related to predicting future lateral PFC activity.

    Stroop Effect

    Automatic word reading interfering with the color-naming task.

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    Cognitive Control

    The brain's ability to manage attention, make decisions, and control actions.

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    Error-Related Negativity (ERN)

    A brain signal/potential linked to error detection and monitoring.

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    Frontal Lobe Structures

    Brain areas crucial for planning, decision-making, and executing actions.

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    Inhibitory Control of Action

    Controlling actions, often thought of as stopping or holding back from acting.

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    Hierarchical Model of Lateral PFC

    A model showing different levels of processing in the frontal cortex.

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    Task-Switching

    The ability to rapidly switch between different tasks.

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    Right Inferior Prefrontal Cortex

    Brain region involved in stopping actions. Connects to basal ganglia.

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    Decision Making

    The process of choosing between options/courses of action involved in various types of cognitive tasks.

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    Planning

    Formulating a sequence of actions to achieve a goal.

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    Working Memory

    The temporary storage and manipulation of information.

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    Cognitive Inhibition

    Suppressing inappropriate responses or thoughts.

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    Decision-Making

    Selecting the best option among various choices.

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    Domain-Specific Processing

    Specialized processing focused on a particular type of information.

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    Domain-General Processing

    General purpose processing applied to various types of information.

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    Prefrontal Cortex

    Part of the brain involved in planning, decision making, and higher cognitive function.

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    Rule Switching

    Adapting to new rules and adapting behavior.

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    Wisconsin Card Sorting Task

    A test to assess rule learning and task switching abilities.

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    Cognitive Set

    The stored rules and information in working memory relevant to a task.

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    Expected Value

    The average reward of a probabilistic process, calculated by multiplying the probability of each outcome by its utility.

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    Reward Prediction Error

    The difference between the predicted and actual reward.

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    System 1 (Dual System Model)

    Fast, automatic, emotionally-driven decision-making system.

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    System 2 (Dual System Model)

    Slow, deliberate, evidence-based decision making system.

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    Utility

    The subjective value or satisfaction a person gains from an outcome, which can be positive or negative.

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    Prospect Theory

    Explains how people make decisions under uncertainty, often focusing on potential losses and gains.

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    Rational Choice Theory

    People always choose the option that maximizes their expected value, assuming fully informed and rational decisions.

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    Ventro-medial Prefrontal Cortex

    Brain region involved in value-based decisions (subjective worth).

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    Dopamine

    Neurotransmitter functioning as a reward signal, crucial for evaluating value.

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    Weber-Fechner Law

    As the input increases, our sensitivity to differences decreases.

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    Ventral Striatum

    A brain region involved in motivation and the coding of value during decision-making. It is particularly active when anticipating rewards.

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    vmPFC / Orbitofrontal Cortex

    A brain region responsible for coding subjective value, evaluating the worth of different options during decision-making.

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    Salience Network

    A network of brain regions including the Anterior Cingulate Cortex (dACC) and Anterior Insula, responsible for detecting important and relevant information in the environment.

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    Lateral Prefrontal Cortex

    A brain region involved in high-level cognitive functions like planning, working memory, and cognitive control.

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    Dopamine System

    A system involving the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) and dopamine pathways, responsible for signaling changes in information and supporting learning.

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    Reward Prediction Error (RPE)

    The difference between the expected reward and the actual reward received. It's a key concept in temporal difference learning, where the brain learns to predict future rewards.

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    Dopamine Neurons and RPE

    Dopamine neurons in the brain's reward system, specifically in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra (SNc), seem to reflect the reward prediction error (RPE).

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    System 1: ‘Hot’

    This is a fast, automatic, and emotional system of cognition. It's linked to immediate rewards and utilizes limbic circuitry, including the ventral striatum, OFC, vmPFC.

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    System 2: ‘Cool’

    This is a slower, more deliberate, and controlled system of cognition. It's linked to more rational decision-making and uses executive function circuitry, such as the lateral PFC, dACC, and PPC.

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    OFC/vmPFC and Value

    The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) are brain regions involved in representing the value of different choices or rewards.

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    LPFC and Self-Control

    The lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) is associated with self-control and inhibiting impulsive behavior.

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    Temporal Discounting

    The tendency to value rewards that are received sooner than those received later, even if the later reward is objectively larger or better.

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    Ventral Striatum and Temporal Discounting

    The ventral striatum, a brain region involved in reward processing, shows increased activity when people value immediate rewards over delayed ones.

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    Study Notes

    Cognitive Control

    • Cognitive control involves higher-level processes that regulate thoughts and actions
    • This chapter delves into the brain regions supporting executive control
    • The "homunculus" problem raises questions about the 'self' or decision-making process in the mind

    Cognitive Control Topics

    • Frontal lobe structures are vital for cognitive control
    • A hierarchical model explains how Lateral PFC (Prefrontal Cortex) processes information in a structured way
    • Task switching and rule switching are aspects of cognitive flexibility
    • Planning abilities are crucial for achieving goals
    • Working memory holds and manipulates information needed for current tasks
    • Cognitive inhibition helps us control and suppress inappropriate responses
    • Decision-making is a complex process involving weighing options and choosing the best course of action

    Domain-Specific & Domain-General Processing

    • Domain-specific processing is fast and specialized to certain types of information
    • General-purpose processing is slower, but adaptive for diverse situations
    • Cognitive control functions are generally domain-general

    Major Brain Regions

    • Pre-frontal cortex, including dl, vl, dm, vm regions is a key structure for executive control functions
    • Regions like anterior cingulate, posterior parietal cortex and dorsal/ventral striatum are involved as well
    • Parts of the cerebellum are also connected

    Mammalian Neocortex

    • The human neocortex has a much larger surface area than a mouse's, despite similar thickness
    • White matter expands significantly in humans, particularly compared to other primates

    Expansion of the Prefrontal Cortex

    • The prefrontal cortex plays a key role in higher-level cognition
    • Its size has evolved substantially in primates, particularly in humans
    • The frontal lobe of humans has a larger prefrontal cortex than other animals

    Frontal Lobe Subdivisions

    • Prefrontal cortex is a portion of the frontal lobe in front of the motor and pre-motor cortex
    • Some regions such as SMA, PMC, Broca's areas aren't considered part of the prefrontal cortex
    • Other subdivisions include the lateral prefrontal, dorsal/ventral, frontal pole, medial frontal areas, anterior cingulate, ventromedial prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex

    Parceling the Brain Based on Connectivity

    • Studying brain connectivity helps delineate different cognitive networks
    • Many brain regions work together to execute cognitive functions
    • Different networks, such as visual, somatomotor, dorsal attention, ventral attention, limbic, frontoparietal and default networks have been identified

    Basal Ganglia Control of Behavior

    • Basal ganglia participate in different functions (motor, prefrontal, and affective loops)
    • The anterior caudate is involved in prefrontal loop, influencing goal-directed behavior

    Goal-Directed Behavior & Hierarchical Planning

    • Planning involves breaking down tasks into smaller steps
    • Task switching and maintaining goals are important elements of hierarchical planning
    • Monitoring progress through various stages is essential to achieve goals
    • This process helps in making decisions

    Evidence for Hierarchy in Cognitive Control

    • Cognitive control processes increase in complexity from posterior to anterior regions in the Lateral PFC
    • Different brain areas in the frontal lobe are involved in different aspects of cognitive control

    Rule Switching

    • Rule switching tasks assesses cognitive abilities
    • Cognitive set is the collection and maintenance of rules during tasks
    • The Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, is used to test rule switching abilities

    Inferior Frontal Sulcus & Rule Switching

    • This area shows activity during rule switching on the WCST (Wisconsin Card Sorting Task)

    Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

    • ACC is the central area involved in executive attention
    • ACC shows activity in visual tasks
    • ACC is involved when expectations are violated

    Stroop Effect

    • Word reading can interfere with naming the color of the word, demonstrating automatic processes
    • ACC and Anterior Cingulate Cortex are involved
    • Anterior Cingulate Cortex activity is involved when cognitive expectations are violated
    • ERN is hypothesized to originate in the anterior cingulate
    • It is elicited by errors in responses

    Inhibitory Control of Action

    • Right inferior prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in inhibiting actions, notably during tasks where a response needs to be suppressed

    How do we make decisions?

    • Decisions span various aspects of life - from simple choices to major life decisions
    • Evaluating possible outcomes (probability and value) is involved
    • Processing accumulates evidence to reach a decision

    Rational Choice Theory

    • Rational Choice Theory assumes that individuals are fully informed, rational, and prioritize their best interest
    • Expected Value is the average reward from probabilistic situations.

    Expected Value

    • Expected value is a method of calculating the average reward or outcome of a situation with probabilities of factors
    • This model is commonly used in economics and decision-making scenarios

    Daniel Kahneman's Nobel Prize

    • Kahneman received a Nobel Prize for his research that integrated insights from psychology into economics, specifically regarding human judgments and decision-making under uncertainty

    Prospect Theory

    Dual System Model of Cognition

    • System 1 is fast, automatic, and context-dependent. It's associated with limbic circuitry and emotionally-guided decisions.
    • System 2 is slow, controlled, rational, and deliberate. It's connected to executive function
    • These two systems work together to shape our cognitive abilities

    Delayed Gratification

    • Delayed gratification is the ability to resist immediate rewards for larger, later rewards
    • The marshmallow experiment studies this ability and links it to brain mechanisms, specifically the prefrontal cortex

    Temporal Discounting

    OFC Damage Impairs Temporal Discounting

    • Orbital frontal cortex (OFC) damage impacts the ability to evaluate the subjective value of rewards over time.

    Marshmallow Experiment (fMRI 40 Years Later!)

    • Prefrontal cortex plays a significant role in differentiating between go/no-go trials, particularly among individuals who delayed gratification more effectively
    • Ventral Striatum engagement differs in those who delayed gratification differently in these trials

    Decision Making Summary

    • Dopamine plays a crucial role in encoding value and motivation
    • Ventral Tegmental Area and ventral striatum provide signals not necessarily about the reward, but about changing information on the value of rewards
    • Different brain regions are involved in value-based and value-free decision-making

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    Description

    Explore the critical roles of brain regions such as the Anterior Cingulate Cortex and the lateral Prefrontal Cortex in cognitive tasks. This quiz delves into topics like the Stroop Effect, cognitive flexibility, and decision-making, inviting you to assess your understanding of these key concepts in cognitive psychology.

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