Cognitive Psychology: ACC and Rule-Switching

Cognitive Control

• Cognitive control involves higher-level processes that regulate thoughts and actions
• This chapter delves into the brain regions supporting executive control
• The "homunculus" problem raises questions about the 'self' or decision-making process in the mind

Cognitive Control Topics

• Frontal lobe structures are vital for cognitive control
• A hierarchical model explains how Lateral PFC (Prefrontal Cortex) processes information in a structured way
• Task switching and rule switching are aspects of cognitive flexibility
• Planning abilities are crucial for achieving goals
• Working memory holds and manipulates information needed for current tasks
• Cognitive inhibition helps us control and suppress inappropriate responses
• Decision-making is a complex process involving weighing options and choosing the best course of action

Domain-Specific & Domain-General Processing

• Domain-specific processing is fast and specialized to certain types of information
• General-purpose processing is slower, but adaptive for diverse situations
• Cognitive control functions are generally domain-general

Major Brain Regions

• Pre-frontal cortex, including dl, vl, dm, vm regions is a key structure for executive control functions
• Regions like anterior cingulate, posterior parietal cortex and dorsal/ventral striatum are involved as well
• Parts of the cerebellum are also connected

Mammalian Neocortex

• The human neocortex has a much larger surface area than a mouse's, despite similar thickness
• White matter expands significantly in humans, particularly compared to other primates

Expansion of the Prefrontal Cortex

• The prefrontal cortex plays a key role in higher-level cognition
• Its size has evolved substantially in primates, particularly in humans
• The frontal lobe of humans has a larger prefrontal cortex than other animals

Frontal Lobe Subdivisions

• Prefrontal cortex is a portion of the frontal lobe in front of the motor and pre-motor cortex
• Some regions such as SMA, PMC, Broca's areas aren't considered part of the prefrontal cortex
• Other subdivisions include the lateral prefrontal, dorsal/ventral, frontal pole, medial frontal areas, anterior cingulate, ventromedial prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex

Parceling the Brain Based on Connectivity

• Studying brain connectivity helps delineate different cognitive networks
• Many brain regions work together to execute cognitive functions
• Different networks, such as visual, somatomotor, dorsal attention, ventral attention, limbic, frontoparietal and default networks have been identified

Basal Ganglia Control of Behavior

• Basal ganglia participate in different functions (motor, prefrontal, and affective loops)
• The anterior caudate is involved in prefrontal loop, influencing goal-directed behavior

Goal-Directed Behavior & Hierarchical Planning

• Planning involves breaking down tasks into smaller steps
• Task switching and maintaining goals are important elements of hierarchical planning
• Monitoring progress through various stages is essential to achieve goals
• This process helps in making decisions

Evidence for Hierarchy in Cognitive Control

• Cognitive control processes increase in complexity from posterior to anterior regions in the Lateral PFC
• Different brain areas in the frontal lobe are involved in different aspects of cognitive control

Rule Switching

• Rule switching tasks assesses cognitive abilities
• Cognitive set is the collection and maintenance of rules during tasks
• The Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, is used to test rule switching abilities

Inferior Frontal Sulcus & Rule Switching

• This area shows activity during rule switching on the WCST (Wisconsin Card Sorting Task)

Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

• ACC is the central area involved in executive attention
• ACC shows activity in visual tasks
• ACC is involved when expectations are violated

Stroop Effect

• Word reading can interfere with naming the color of the word, demonstrating automatic processes
• ACC and Anterior Cingulate Cortex are involved
• Anterior Cingulate Cortex activity is involved when cognitive expectations are violated

Error-Related Negativity (ERN)

• ERN is hypothesized to originate in the anterior cingulate
• It is elicited by errors in responses

Inhibitory Control of Action

• Right inferior prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in inhibiting actions, notably during tasks where a response needs to be suppressed

How do we make decisions?

• Decisions span various aspects of life - from simple choices to major life decisions
• Evaluating possible outcomes (probability and value) is involved
• Processing accumulates evidence to reach a decision

Rational Choice Theory

• Rational Choice Theory assumes that individuals are fully informed, rational, and prioritize their best interest
• Expected Value is the average reward from probabilistic situations.

Expected Value

• Expected value is a method of calculating the average reward or outcome of a situation with probabilities of factors
• This model is commonly used in economics and decision-making scenarios

Daniel Kahneman's Nobel Prize

• Kahneman received a Nobel Prize for his research that integrated insights from psychology into economics, specifically regarding human judgments and decision-making under uncertainty

Prospect Theory

Dual System Model of Cognition

• System 1 is fast, automatic, and context-dependent. It's associated with limbic circuitry and emotionally-guided decisions.
• System 2 is slow, controlled, rational, and deliberate. It's connected to executive function
• These two systems work together to shape our cognitive abilities

Delayed Gratification

• Delayed gratification is the ability to resist immediate rewards for larger, later rewards
• The marshmallow experiment studies this ability and links it to brain mechanisms, specifically the prefrontal cortex

Temporal Discounting

OFC Damage Impairs Temporal Discounting

• Orbital frontal cortex (OFC) damage impacts the ability to evaluate the subjective value of rewards over time.

Marshmallow Experiment (fMRI 40 Years Later!)

• Prefrontal cortex plays a significant role in differentiating between go/no-go trials, particularly among individuals who delayed gratification more effectively
• Ventral Striatum engagement differs in those who delayed gratification differently in these trials

Decision Making Summary

• Dopamine plays a crucial role in encoding value and motivation
• Ventral Tegmental Area and ventral striatum provide signals not necessarily about the reward, but about changing information on the value of rewards
• Different brain regions are involved in value-based and value-free decision-making