Cognitive Bias and Cultural Psychology

In individualistic cultures, people see themselves as separate and independent, emphasizing personal goals and achievements. In collectivist cultures, individuals are viewed as interconnected and interdependent, prioritizing group harmony, family, and social obligations.

Japanese individuals are encouraged to self-critique, while Americans are more praised for their accomplishments. This reflects the cultural emphasis on modesty and improvement in Japanese society compared to the American focus on individual achievement.

An analytical approach focuses on identifying individual objects distinct from their surroundings, like isolating a shape from its background. This aligns with Western cultures that prioritize clear distinctions and logic.

A holistic approach considers the entire context and relationships between elements, viewing objects as part of a whole environment, common in Eastern cultures.

In Western cultures, thinking revolves around abstract categories and logical rules, applying universal principles to situations. It's like organizing information into neat boxes.

In Eastern cultures, thinking focuses on the relationships, context, and connections between elements. This perspective views information as a web of interconnected pieces.

The tendency to recall details from the background of a scene, demonstrating an emphasis on overall context rather than solely focusing on the central object.

The ability to recognize an object in different backgrounds, implying a focus on object characteristics independent of its context.

The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to achieve, even if it turns out to be undesirable.

The act of convincing oneself that a decision made was the right one by emphasizing the positive aspects of the chosen option and downplaying the negative aspects of the rejected option.

An experiment that demonstrates the effect of effort on perceived value. Participants who were forced to endure a more uncomfortable initiation process had a higher evaluation of the subsequent group discussion, despite its boring content.

The phenomenon where people tend to find things more appealing when they put in effort to build or assemble them.

Examining a decision that was made. Observing someone making a decision and then evaluating their attitude towards their choice.

A phenomenon where people tend to put a higher value on things they had to work for, and this value is often higher than the objective value of the item itself.

The study that involved participants rating the desirability of household items, then choosing two items, and finally, re-rating their desirability. The results showed that unchosen items were rated lower after the choice, even if they were highly rated initially.

A study designed to test the theory of cognitive dissonance, where participants were asked to perform a boring task and then paid either $1 or $20 to tell others the task was enjoyable. The results showed that participants who were paid $1 perceived the task as more enjoyable than those paid $20, supporting the theory of cognitive dissonance.

The tendency to attribute others' behaviors to their internal characteristics (personality traits, abilities, etc.) rather than external circumstances. It often leads to blaming individuals or groups for their situations.

The tendency to seek out, remember, and interpret information that confirms existing beliefs, ignoring contradictory evidence. This reinforces stereotypes and prejudices.

A tendency to overestimate the frequency of negative behaviors in minority groups, even when actual proportions are equal.

People's expectations and behaviors can reinforce existing prejudices. For example, if a group is stereotyped as aggressive, people might act more aggressively towards them, confirming the stereotype.

When people focus on the things they do well and ignore their weaknesses. Positive aspects are perceived as more important. This can lead to overconfidence and neglecting areas for improvement.

The theory that individuals strive to reduce discomfort or stress caused by holding conflicting beliefs or engaging in actions that contradict their values.

The tendency for individuals to justify their behavior and choices, even when those choices are inconsistent with their beliefs or values. It is a way to reduce cognitive dissonance.

The ability to reduce cognitive dissonance relies on a person's memory of their previous choices and decisions. Without memory, they may be unable to justify their actions.

The experience of discomfort or tension caused by a conflict between our beliefs and our behaviors. It is a motivating force that drives us to reduce the inconsistency.

Cognitive resources required to make a decision and later justify it can be depleted by other mental tasks, leading to less dissonance reduction. This suggests that cognitive load can affect our ability to rationalize choices.

The tendency to attribute our actions and behaviors to internal factors, such as our personality traits or motivations, instead of external factors. This can influence our perception of others and ourselves.

Emotional responses to situations that we perceive as important for our goals. They can be brief and intense, and prioritize our attention and actions in response to events.

The interpretation we give to a situation that triggers an emotional response. Appraisals influence how we perceive the situation and subsequent actions.

Mood state, or how we are feeling in the moment, can influence our thoughts, judgments, and decisions. It serves as a primary factor in making quick evaluations of situations.

Individuals are more likely to conform to a larger group, but this effect diminishes rapidly beyond a certain size. This suggests that there is a limit to how much we are influenced by the opinions of a large group.

When a task is unclear, there is no right or wrong answer, leading individuals to rely on others for guidance. This can lead to private acceptance, where individuals actually believe the group's judgment, rather than just public compliance, agreeing with the group without actually believing the answer.

Individuals are more likely to conform to a higher-status individual in a group, especially in a small group setting. This status effect implies that perceived authority influences conformity.

Synchronizing movements with others, like tapping in time, can foster a feeling of connection and create a more positive experience. This demonstrates that shared actions can lead to social bonding.

The tendency to rely on others' opinions increases when we are unsure or lack confidence. This suggests that a lack of personal confidence can lead to increased conformity.

The validity of a consensus opinion is stronger when it comes from independent sources. If too many people agree, it might seem suspicious, suggesting collusion or a lack of genuine independent thought.

Feeling embarrassed for disagreeing with a group is reduced when the group is larger. This suggests that the level of social pressure decreases as group size increases beyond a certain point.

Private Acceptance is when an individual genuinely believes the group's judgment, even if they initially held a different view. Public Compliance is simply agreeing with the group outwardly, without necessarily believing their answer.

A social value that prioritizes respecting hierarchies, traditions, and legitimate authority figures to maintain order and stability. It emphasizes moral virtues like obedience, deference, and respect.

A social value focused on the concepts of purity and contamination, often linked to religious or cultural beliefs. It promotes moral virtues such as purity, sanctity, and self-control.

A model that explains how individuals decide whether to help someone in need. It involves a series of cognitive steps, including noticing the event, interpreting it as an emergency, taking responsibility, deciding how to help, and providing help.

A barrier in the decision-making model where the individual fails to recognize that a situation requires intervention. It can be caused by factors such as preoccupation, ambiguity, or being in a crowd.

A barrier in the decision-making model where individuals are unsure if a situation is an emergency because they see others not reacting. This leads them to assume help is not needed.

A barrier in the decision-making model where, in a group, individuals assume someone else will take responsibility for helping. This reduces individual accountability.

A barrier in the decision-making model where individuals feel a lack of expertise or fear making things worse, preventing them from providing assistance.

A barrier in which individuals are afraid to intervene because they fear appearing foolish or causing unnecessary attention.